Al-Maʾmūn

Caliph

• Born: September 14, 786
• Place of Birth: Baghdad, Iraq
• Died: August 1, 833
• Place of Death: near Tarsus, Mersin, Turkey

Significance: Al-Ma'mūn was the seventh caliph of the Abbāsid dynasty. In power from 813 to 833, al-Ma'mūn became known for his attempts to end sectarianism within the Islamic religion. He engaged in a number of conflicts with the Byzantine Empire and dealt with multiple internal rebellions throughout his rule. Al-Ma'mūn was an avid supporter of educational pursuits and personally financed a number of scholastic institutions during his lifetime.

Background

Al-Ma'mūn was born on September 14, 786, in Baghdad, Iraq. He was the oldest of the eleven sons of Hārūn al-Rashīd, the fifth caliph of the Abbāsid dynasty. His mother was a Persian concubine who died shortly after al-Ma'mūn was born. Zubayda, al-Rashīd's favorite wife, raised al-Ma'mūn after his mother passed away. As the son of a caliph, the young al-Ma'mūn received an excellent education. He was trained in the Muslim religion's Hadith practices and later became an expert in Islamic law. He learned the Arabic language and was instructed in the humanities, music, religion, and poetry.

Al-Ma'mūn's father housed an extensive library in Baghdad. The library included traditional Muslim texts and other literature from around the world. In addition to his studies of Islam, al-Ma'mūn took advantage of his father's foreign texts. He became known for his exceptional intellect throughout his early life. He greatly valued self-improvement through education and scholarly pursuits.

In 799, al-Ma'mūn's father named him second in line to the caliphate succession after his younger brother, al-Amīn. Although al-Ma'mūn was al-Rashīd's oldest son, his bloodline was less pure because his mother was a concubine, so he was not originally chosen as his father's successor. The decision was made official in 802 in Mecca, where official witnesses signed off on what was known as the Meccan Accord. This agreement designated al-Amīn as first in line to succeed al-Rashīd as caliph. It gave al-Ma'mūn independent governance over the historical region of Khorasan, which covered areas of modern Central Asia and Afghanistan. Al-Ma'mūn also received control of the areas engaged in war with the Byzantine Empire. Al-Amīn's and al-Ma'mūn's troops would be allowed to enter each other's territories to pursue enemies.

Life's Work

Al-Rashīd died on March 24, 809, after falling ill while traveling through the city of Tūs, Iran. Following the caliph's death, al-Amīn assumed power, and al-Ma'mūn took control of the regions assigned to him in the Meccan Accord. It was not long before al-Amīn became displeased with the stipulations of the Meccan Accord, however. He ordered the army and treasury in Khorasan back to Baghdad. Al-Amīn's actions eventually broke several aspects of the Meccan Accord, which resulted in conflict between the two brothers.

Al-Amīn further aggravated the issue by adding his son Musa to the list of caliphate heirs. He then ordered al-Ma'mūn to return to Baghdad to serve as his advisor, but al-Ma'mūn refused. In reaction, al-Amīn instituted new financial policies that required any revenue from the Khorasan region to be sent directly to the caliph. He sent his own emissaries to oversee Khorasan's revenues. A frustrated al-Ma'mūn had his brother's name removed from Khorasan's coinage in response.

Al-Ma'mūn's actions brought al-Amīn to his breaking point. Al-Amīn had his brother removed as successor to the caliphate, which effectively invalidated the Meccan Accord. Al-Ma'mūn declared his intention to reclaim power, beginning a civil war within the Abbāsid dynasty. The war did not last long. It started in early March of 811 and lasted until May of that year, when al-Ma'mūn's forces defeated al-Amīn's troops. Al-Ma'mūn was proclaimed caliph, a title he officially held after the execution of al-Amīn in 813.

Al-Ma'mūn served as caliph for the next two decades. During the early years of his reign, he experienced a number of revolts in Baghdad and other areas of Iraq. Some people of Iraq, specifically the Shia Muslim population, were angry that al-Ma'mūn had named the Persian city of Marw as the new capital. They believed the new caliph was neglecting his Arab ancestry for his Persian roots. A series of conflicts followed, which al-Ma'mūn tried to quell by naming Ali al-Ridha, a Shia imam, as his successor. The move angered the Abbāsid community in Baghdad, however, which led to further turmoil. Al-Ma'mūn decided to return to Baghdad in 818 to deal with the growing rebellion. In the sixteen months it took him to finally arrive in Baghdad, Ali al-Ridha had died of unknown causes. This event allowed al-Ma'mūn to make amends with the Abbāsids, and soon he had regained the support of those in Baghdad.

During the next decade, al-Ma'mūn suppressed another series of uprisings that continued even after his death. In the years following his return to Baghdad, he spent much time meditating on the relationship between religion and politics. He issued a number of proclamations aimed at strengthening his subjects' devotedness to the doctrines in the Quran, the primary holy book of the Islamic religion. He championed a rationalist view of the Quran and punished those who advocated other interpretations. He launched the Mihnah, or inquisition, in 833, with an aim of making the caliph the final authority of Islamic orthodoxy.

Also during this period, Al-Ma'mūn reorganized the caliphate's army, dividing the forces into three units, each of which was assigned to a specific area. Apart from the various rebellions al-Ma'mūn curbed, he led several campaigns into Egypt and the Byzantine Empire. Al-Ma'mūn was in the middle of his third campaign against the Byzantine Empire when he suddenly died, reportedly after eating spoiled dates, in August of 833 near the city of Tarsus. On his deathbed, he named his brother, Abū Ishāq (referred to as al-Mu'tasim as caliph), as his successor.

Impact

Al-Ma'mūn's reign involved much violence, but he sought to do good during his lifetime. He was a champion of education and regularly provided financial support to educational projects, such as the construction of astronomy observatories. He built up his father's book collection to create one of the Arab world's first great libraries. In Baghdad, he established what was known as the "House of Wisdom," where scholars from all over the world were encouraged to visit, work, and do research. Al-Ma'mūn made contributions to study of alchemy and cartography during his time in power.

Personal Life

Al-Ma'mūn married his cousin, Umm Isa, at eighteen. Al-Ma'mūn kept several concubines, many of whom bore him children.

Bibliography

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