Mozi

Chinese philosopher

• Born: c. 470 b.c.e.
• Birthplace: China
• Died: c. 391 b.c.e.
• Place of death: China

Mozi founded the school of Mohism, which promoted beliefs in public ideals and meritocracy, contributing to the rise of the first empire in China (221 b.c.e.).

Early Life

Virtually nothing is known of the life and background of Mozi (maw-dzih). Some scholars believe that he had been trained early in the Confucian school before he broke away to start his own line of thought. This claim, however, cannot be confirmed by the historical record; the earliest statement of the claim dates from three centuries after Mozi’s life. On the basis of Mozi’s known support for social mobility and the possible meanings for his name—“Mo” refers to ink—some scholars speculate that Mozi came from a lower-class background, possibly that of an artisan or craftsman, or even that of an erstwhile criminal (taking “mo” as a reference to the branding of criminals).

Such speculations seem to agree with the general tenor of Mozi’s advocacy of ideas and institutions that hoped to eliminate contemporary practices of nepotism and the consolidation of power among a hereditary elite class. These speculations also make sense in light of the frequent references in Mohist writings to tools and the construction of objects as a metaphor for how to govern and act properly. However, since there is no explicit, reliable textual evidence concerning Mozi’s personal background, it remains impossible to say with certainty that he stemmed from the lower class.

Life’s Work

Mozi did not leave behind any writings of his own, and it is not known whether he even transmitted his ideas in written form. His thoughts are preserved today in the writings of his disciples and the many later followers and contemporaries of his school during the Warring States period (475-221 b.c.e.). These writings are collected in a text known as Mozi (fifth century b.c.e.; The Ethical and Political Works of Motse, 1929; also known as Mo Tzu: Basic Writings, 1963). Because of the impersonal, public style of the Mohist writings, there is very little in the corpus that reflects aspects of Mozi’s life. Rather, accounts of his sayings recorded by his disciples convey a vivid sense of his religious, philosophical, and political orientations.

Much more can be said about Mohist schools of thought, which all claimed Mozi as their founder. The schools of Mohism rivaled the thought of the followers of Confucius (Kong Qiu; 551-479 b.c.e.) for centuries until the sudden disappearance of the school in the second century b.c.e. The disappearance of the school coincided with the rise of the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 b.c.e.-220 c.e.).

Mohists are mentioned sporadically in a few texts of the late Zhou (fourth-third centuries b.c.e.) and early Han (second century b.c.e.) periods, both in conjunction with Mozi and in connection with later groups, cultlike in organization, whose writings were much more specialized than those of their predecessors. Scholars refer to the “early Mohists” as those men who were responsible for leaving behind the earliest, core chapters of the Mohist text. These men were thought to be the direct disciples of the Master Mo himself, although the writings could possibly incorporate the words of one more generation of followers.

Early Mohists assembled together in groups according to a rigid hierarchy, all paying allegiance to their leader, known as the juzi. Since the structure of group was comparable to that of a military organization, Mohist groups fall more easily into the category of “schools” than any other early Chinese intellectual tradition. Mohist schools, both early and later, were spread out throughout many different states of the then multistate cultural and economic sphere. They functioned in society as cohesive military, religious, and intellectual units, renowned for acting out their values of loyalty and integrity to an extreme degree.

Early Mohists also became famous for their stance in opposition to certain Confucian practices of the day. The core chapters, which best represent the thought of the earlier schools, expound on ten basic precepts associated with the Mohist point of view. These precepts include such things as “universal caring,” adherence to “heaven’s will,” “denying fatalism,” “denouncing music,” “elevating the achieved,” “elevating conformity,” and “negating the Confucians.” The chapters against Confucian practices criticize elaborate burial practices and musical performances supported by Confucian ritual beliefs. Early Mohist criticism of music and burial practices is rooted in a belief that these practices demand the use of precious resources of the state and society that might otherwise be put to better use in maintaining social order and promoting the well-being of people. These chapters especially reveal Mozi’s extreme tendencies toward frugality and political pragmatism, which permeate his philosophy.

Even the style of writing in the core chapters reflects a frugal aesthetic. Attributed to Mozi is the belief that flourishes and elements of literary style represent excessive additives that only detract from the truth. Whether consciously achieved or not, then, the core chapters themselves are notoriously terse, dry, and repetitive. At the same time, these chapters represent the first attempts known by early Chinese writers to establish a logical basis for utilizing and analyzing evidence that constitutes truth. Since these chapters express themselves in a fundamentally different way from the extant writings of the early Warring States, the prose style of the core chapters cannot be dismissed or neglected, despite its blunt style.

Another significant preoccupation of the early Mohists, continued by later proponents of their school, was with defensive warfare. Since the philosophy of Mozi condemns both the logic and practice of aggressive warfare, Mohists took up arms so as to dutifully aid those kingdoms under attack in their defense of regional aggressors. In such a manner, the Mohists found themselves embroiled in defensive warfare so as to act out their opposition to aggressive warfare. In addition to fighting for kingdoms under siege, later Mohists composed treatises on defensive warfare that provide fascinating details concerning the construction of defensive structures such as city walls.

Later Mohists, who lived and wrote from about 300 to 200 b.c.e., diverged quite radically from their predecessors. These groups occupied themselves primarily with specialized matters of defense and the linguistic and logical foundations of thought, knowledge, and speech. In the latter capacity, they became known for their achievements and prowess in dialectic, and they joined other thinkers, later known as Sophists, or members of the “School of Names,” in actively engaging in formal, public debates held at court. Such debates came to represent a fairly standard means for intellectuals of the third century b.c.e. to engage in court politics and sway rulers and ministers to line up with their own ways of thinking. Writings on disputation and logic that stem from the later Mohists are represented in the Mohist “Canons” and “Explanations,” along with smaller, isolated chapters transmitted as part of the Mohist corpus.

The last twenty chapters of the Mohist corpus constitute the literary works of the later Mohists on warfare. These chapters focus heavily on engineering projects involving defensive structures. Inquiries into the more scientific and mathematical subjects of optics, geometry, mechanics, economics, and even traces of astronomy can be found throughout the “Canons.” The epistemology of the Mohists appears to be grounded in a belief that objective truth exists and can be made intelligible through examination, study, and language. Hence, their detailed involvement in a wide array of practical topics in addition to disputation.

Significance

Mozi is renowned for his sage wisdom and irreproachable behavior. He is also known as an ethicist and political philosopher who advocated a radical ideology of utilitarianism and universal human adherence to objective standards of Heavenly law. This ideology makes an explicit appeal to a meritocratic system of government appointment, which subsequently became associated more primarily with Legalist philosophies (writings on statecraft), and eventually became one of the benchmarks for empire in China at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 c.e.). Mohist ideology also makes an appeal to a new concept of “universal caring,” which recommends that individuals extend their concern for people in their most private sphere to those stemming from a more impersonal and public realm.

Mozi’s religious views are significant as well. While he upholds many traditional Zhou beliefs in the efficacy of ghosts and spirits as agents of heaven, Mozi also presents an extreme interpretation of heaven as an absolute moral force in the world. This latter vision is distinctive in the early Warring States period (475-221 b.c.e.) of the Zhou Dynasty because it supports a heavily monotheistic orientation that links individual human behavior directly with heavenly reward and punishment.The writings of the early Mohists reflect a singular interest in ethics and political philosophy. Early Mohist thought, which allegedly represents the teachings of Master Mo, is known for its advocacy of a type of utilitarianism centering around the concept of li: profit or benefit. This utilitarianism is grounded in a belief that heaven’s system of justice translates into standards of behavior that can be measured through a calculus for bringing benefit to people. The early Mohist emphasis on the importance of having standards that can be defined and measured becomes apparent through such a claim.

Early Mohist ethical and political philosophy had a profound effect on politics and culture of the Warring States. Mencius (c. 372-c. 289 b.c.e.), a later Confucian lamented that the words of Mozi and of Yangzhu (known for his egoistic philosophy of the self) dominated the culture of his day. Mohist beliefs in meritocracy were absorbed so thoroughly in politics that they eventually became disassociated with the Mohist school and ascribed to general views on statecraft (Legalism). Indeed, some scholars speculate that the primary reason for the sudden demise of the Mohist school around 200 b.c.e. can be attributed to the fact that their beliefs enjoyed such popularity that they became absorbed into intellectual culture and mitigated against the necessity of having a Mohist school at all. None of this can be confirmed without more data on the particular contexts and circumstances surrounding their demise.

Mohism did not end with the demise of the school around 200 b.c.e. The writings of the Mohists were largely neglected for two millennia, until the influx of Western influences in China helped spark a renewed interest in the scientific foundations of China’s past. Despite this neglect, it is undeniable that Mozi and his many schools played an integral part in the course of philosophical and political development during the critical period of empire-making. The influence of the Mohist concepts of meritocracy and objective law on the growth of empire cannot be overlooked, as it constitutes a lasting contribution to the shape of thought and institutions in imperial China and East Asia at large.

Bibliography

Fung, Yu-lan. A History of Chinese Philosophy. Translated by Derk Bodde. 2 vols. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967. Thorough overview of Chinese philosophy that includes a narrative of the Mohists and their place in the history of early thought.

Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court, 1989. Provides one of the best discussions of the role of Mohist thought as a radical reaction to contemporary debates of the time.

Graham, A. C. Divisions in Early Mohism Reflected in the Core Chapters of Mo-tzu. Singapore: Institute of East Asian Philosophies, 1985. Argues for the division of Mohist schools of thought on the basis of apparent differences in the Mohist corpus.

Graham, A. C. Later Mohist Logic, Ethics, and Science. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1978. A most thorough discussion of the later Mohist “Canon,” its “Explanations,” and other treatises that attest to the depth of later Mohist involvement in science and language, as well as more standard ethical pursuits.

Hu, Shih. The Development of the Logical Method in Ancient China. 2d ed. New York: Paragon, 1963. A twentieth century Chinese thinker’s restatement of the value of China’s own past. This view makes a claim for the indigenous roots of logic as reflected in Mohist writings of the classical period.

Schwartz, Benjamin. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985. Provides a very good overview of early Chinese thought that includes Mohist concerns and pursuits.

Watson, Burton, trans. Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han Fei Tzu. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Selected translations of the core chapters of early Mohist ethical writings.