Critical Skills: Rhetorical Strategies

Rhetorical strategies are techniques used in writing and speaking to organize information and indicate the purpose of the writing or speech, or the argument of the author or speaker. They may be used as motivating forces, such as when encouraging participation in or eliciting support for an issue. Rhetorical strategies are also called rhetorical modes or rhetorical techniques. Some techniques include classification, comparison, definition, description, explanation, and narration. These are used in rhetoric, or the art of effective or persuasive speaking and writing.

Rhetorical strategies are considered essential in many academic and professional fields because they convey a message, help the audience understand it, and effectively support the premise or argument. They may be employed in paper writing, public speaking, and conversation. Learning how and when to use them, and how to combine these strategies, is an important leadership skill. The audience, including its beliefs and composition, should be one of many factors considered when selecting techniques.

Rhetorical strategies are employed in everyday life, often unconsciously. Some basic areas in which an individual may want to make a case or change another’s opinion may involve relatively minor decisions, such as whether to eat dinner at home or go out to a restaurant and what to have, and weighty decisions such as when to buy a house or car, what kind to choose, and how to go about this process. These decisions may rely on logic (it is better to cook at home, using ingredients readily available, because this saves money) or emotion (after a long, hard day, it feels good to have someone else make and serve dinner and clean up afterward, and everyone gets to decide what they want to eat).

Core Skills & Competencies

Choice of rhetorical strategies begins with a clear understanding of one’s goals and audience. The topic may be unfamiliar, so often one must begin with research. The type of information to be used will vary based on the situation. For example, an academic paper will require high-quality sources such as peer-reviewed journals or information from reputable organizations. It will rely on facts and logic rather than emotional language and anecdotes. A speech at a celebration likely also includes facts but may use anecdotes, jokes, and other elements to entertain as well as inform the audience. A presentation to employees may contain humor but again its purpose must be determined—is the leader seeking to inform workers, motivate employees, or achieve some other goal? Often such addresses have multiple goals, for example to announce and inform workers about a new company initiative and encourage them to support it.

Writers may choose from among many rhetorical strategies. They are often categorized as one of three types—logos, ethos, and pathos—but many elements of writing, including figurative language, can be employed to accomplish one’s goals.

Logos is a strategy of logic also called an appeal to reason. It may rely on inductive or deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is used to prove a fact, while inductive reasoning is used to predict a result. Deductive reasoning involves a starting premise or observation. Then it reaches a conclusion, or inference, that is based on the stated evidence and reasoning. It begins with a generalization and applies it to a specific situation. For deductive reasoning to be legitimate, premises must be true—for example: “All birds have wings. A sparrow is a bird. Therefore, a sparrow has wings.” Inductive reasoning relies on evidence to find a pattern, make a generalization, and infer a reason or theory. It begins with a specific situation or observation and uses it to make a generalization—for example: “Every rose I see has thorns. Therefore, most roses have thorns.”

Almost any figure of speech may be employed to make a logos appeal, including apophasis, anthypophora, commoratio, expeditio, and ratiocinatio. Apophasis involves the speaker or writer presenting several reasons for or against something and rejecting each before endorsing a single reason. When using anthypophora, one asks and immediately answers one’s own questions. In commoratio, one focuses attention on or returns to one’s strongest statement or reason. When using expeditio, the writer or speaker lists all possibilities that could have caused something, then eliminates all but one. Ratiocinatio is a technique commonly used in speeches and involves asking oneself questions as a means of thinking about a topic. Individuals must also guard against using logical fallacies, or mistakes in reasoning. Examples include either/or conclusions, which oversimplify an issue, and ad hominem, or attacks on a person’s character rather than their argument.

Ethos, or an ethical appeal, relies on the reputation of the speaker or writer. The person making the claim or statement must have credibility with the audience. This may be factor in many ways and situations. For example, studies have shown that parents are more likely to have their children vaccinated against HPV when they are encouraged by a health care provider (Gilkey, et al., 2020). Physicians are generally viewed as authorities on matters regarding health, and parents usually rely on their children’s doctors for advice and recommendations about vaccines. An ethos strategy may also employ figures of speech such as anamnesis, or using a famous, generally historic, figure as an authority on an issue. A common example involves public speakers who reference famous phrasing such as the “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin Luther King, Jr., to lend weight to their topic or point of view.

Pathos is an emotional appeal. It may employ reason and evidence, but primarily relies on the audience’s feelings about a topic by, for example, relating a story. Such messages are often employed by faith leaders who are making an ethical or moral appeal to the audience. Both the words used and the manner of delivery can contribute to a pathos message. For example, an animated speaker can arouse emotions in the audience. The personal experience of a subject—sometimes described as “putting a face on an issue”—can have a profound effect on an audience. However, pathos is not appropriate in all situations or with all audiences. An emotional appeal may be effective in explaining why funds must be raised to help orphaned children, but be out of place in a presentation about corporate dividends. An emotional appeal should be applied genuinely, not used to frighten or distract from an issue. Effective writers, leaders, and speakers evaluate the purpose and audience and select the appropriate approach to take.

Another concern is kairos, which refers to the right time and place, and mostly relates to knowing one’s audience. This concept in rhetoric refers to choosing the right time to present information, while also understanding the wrong time. Kairos can be strongly motivating but also has often been employed to manipulate audiences. For example, in political speech, a leader might capitalize on pessimistic economic news while arguing against a political challenge or a course of action. However, such an approach would not be appropriate following, for example, a natural tragedy.

Research & Theory

Rhetoric is an art closely associated with the Classical period of ancient Greece, when scholars of the fifth century BCE taught the art of public speaking. The art was regarded as essential in a society where public speaking, in particular debate about legal issues, was a civic duty. Aristotle, a student of the philosopher Plato, was a proponent of rhetorical oratory, or persuasive speaking. In the fourth century BCE he wrote a text on the subject, Rhetoric, that extols its value, instructs its practice, and warns against those who would use it for dishonest reasons. Aristotle taught that persuasion relies on logos, pathos, and ethos, which he called appeals.

Rhetoric remained important among learned individuals for centuries. It became less valued and practiced in Europe in the eighteenth century, but interest re-intensified in the twentieth century. In modern times, the skill is essential to the market economy, which harnesses persuasive tactics to create need and to sell products. In the Information Age, businesses use rhetorical strategies to engage users of products and services—for example, social media frequently employs pathos to persuade individuals to read about a subject, buy a product, or make a donation. Companies develop brands by appealing to emotions or positioning themselves as leaders or experts in their field. Organizations mobilize individuals or segments of society with persuasive arguments, ethical appeals, and pathos.

Rhetorical strategies are essential to success in academia, business, and many other fields because communication is vital to most interactions. Good communication, which is described as a soft skill, allows individuals to convey information and understand others more accurately. Much research and instruction have been conducted to reinforce communication skills in fields such as medicine, where the consequences of poor understanding or communication can be dire. Furthermore, good communication can have a positive impact on one’s emotional, social, and professional outlook. Rhetorical skills such as organizing information logically, being concise, and delivering information confidently and authoritatively improve an individual’s effectiveness and value as an employee and leader.

Bibliography

Aytan, Allahverdiyeva, et al. “Euphemisms and Dysphemisms as Language Means Implementing Rhetorical Strategies in Political Discourse.” Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, July 2021, pp. 741 – 754, doi:10.3316/informit.216155432002696. Accessed 22 June 2022.

Bradford, Alina, and Mindy Weisberger. “Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning.” LiveScience, 7 Dec. 2021, www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html. Accessed 22 June 2022.

Gilkey, Melissa B., et al. “Physicians’ Rhetorical Strategies for Motivating HPV Vaccination.” Social Science & Medicine, vol. 266, 2020, DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113441. Accessed 22 June 2022.

Reinemann, Carsten, and Marcus Maurer. “Unifying or Polarizing? Short-term Effects and Postdebate Consequences of Different Rhetorical Strategies in Televised Debates.” Journal of Communication, vol. 55, no. 4, 2005, pp. 775 – 794, DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb03022.x. Accessed 22 June 2022.

“Using Rhetorical Strategies of Persuasion.” Purdue OWL, owl.purdue.edu/owl/general‗writing/academic‗writing/establishing‗arguments/rhetorical‗strategies.html. Accessed 21 June 2022.