Social penetration theory
Social penetration theory, developed by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor in 1973, explores how individuals deepen their interpersonal relationships through self-disclosure. The theory likens personal relationships to an onion, consisting of multiple layers representing varying degrees of intimacy. Initially, individuals start by sharing superficial information, and as the relationship progresses, they reveal more personal and intimate details. There are several stages of relationship development: the orientation stage (superficial talk), the exploratory affective stage (sharing feelings), the affective stage (discussing private topics), and the stable stage (deep intimacy). A potential fifth stage, depenetration, occurs when individuals begin to withdraw from sharing intimate details, often due to perceived costs outweighing benefits.
Two key concepts within the theory are breadth, which refers to the variety of topics discussed, and depth, which indicates how deeply those topics are explored. Factors influencing self-disclosure include personal characteristics, potential rewards or risks, and situational context. The theory has been influential in understanding relationship dynamics but has faced criticism for its linear progression model. Researchers suggest that relationship development may be more dialectical, where individuals can move back and forth between stages. Additionally, cultural factors and the impact of technology on communication have also been examined in relation to social penetration theory.
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Social penetration theory
In 1973 psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor were interested in discovering how individuals become psychologically closer to each other. They believed that self-disclosure was the key to deepening interpersonal relationships, and that such relationships progressed through stages of "penetration" towards each person's inner self. These ideas became the basis of social penetration theory. This theory explains how individuals gradually become more intimate based on their interpersonal communication behaviors. According to the social penetration theory, relationships begin when individuals share non-intimate layers and move to more intimate layers of personal information.
Overview
Altman and Taylor believed that individuals learn about others through self-disclosure. The manner in which people comprehend others on a deep level also helps them gain a better understanding of themselves. The researchers also believed that such penetration to the deeper levels of another individual's self happens in a gradual manner. They described their theory as an onion with many layers or levels. A person’s personality is similar because it has many layers. We have an outer layer that everyone can see (e.g., hair color or height) and we have very personal layers that people cannot see (e.g., dreams and career aspirations). Only by developing a relationship with someone can their inner layers be revealed.
Three factors affect what people choose to disclose. The first is personal characteristics (e.g., whether an individual is an introvert or extrovert). The second is the possibility of reward or cost associated with disclosing to the other person (e.g., information might have repercussions if the receiver does not like or agree with it). And the third is the situational context (e.g., telling a romantic partner that you want to terminate the relationship on your wedding day). Altman and Taylor proposed that relationships succeed when disclosures are rewarding and fail when they prove costly.
When people first meet each other, they start to get to know each other from their outer layers and slowly move towards their core. The researchers described how people typically will go through various stages to become closer. The first stage is called the orientation stage, where people communicate on very superficial matters like the weather. In this stage most people attempt to follow societal norms and avoid any potentially offensive subjects. The next stage is the exploratory affective stage, where people disclose their feelings about topics like their favorite foods or movies. Many friendships remain at this stage.
The third stage is called the affective stage and is where people explore more private topics. In the affective stage individuals may feel more comfortable expressing criticisms, potentially leading to disagreements and arguments. There may be an increased level of physical contact, such as kissing in romantic relationships. The fourth and deepest stage is the stable stage, where people will share their most intimate details. An important indicator of this level of intimacy is the ability to accurately predict how the other individual will react emotionally to various situations. Spouses, close family members, and best friends can be examples of relationships at the stable stage. There is also a potential fifth stage, the depenetration stage, in which people start to decrease their disclosures. This occurs when a relationship begins to fail, or the costs of intimate disclosure begin to outweigh the benefits, and may result in the total end of a relationship or simply a withdrawal of certain intimate details.
Social penetration theory contains the aspects of breadth and depth. Breadth refers to what topics individuals are willing to talk about with others. For instance, some people do not like to talk about religion and politics because it is considered inappropriate. A relationship becomes more intimate when more and more varied subjects become open to discussion. The second aspect is depth, which refers to how deeply a person is willing to explore certain topics. For example, some people do not mind sharing information about themselves in regards to their favorite things, but they may not be willing to share their most private thoughts about themselves because it is too personal. In one example, a person may be willing to tell someone their favorite films, but may not initially be comfortable discussing details of their emotional reactions to those films. If the other person reciprocates and shares their own favorites, or if other factors cause the two to grow closer, a deeper discussion of their emotions and histories surrounding films may then become appropriate. Researchers believe that self-disclosing to others both in breadth and depth leads to more intimate interpersonal relationships.
Social penetration theory has been widely studied and is highly influential, but it has received significant criticisms. Notably, Altman and Taylor's original model set out a linear progression for the social penetration process, moving from one stage to the next in order. Other researchers have suggested that the process is instead dialectical, and relationships may jump back and forth between stages; essentially, the depenetration stage may occur repeatedly, followed by new periods of penetration. Further, some scholars have noted that factors such as gender, ethnicity, and race may influence not only the penetration process itself but experiments designed to test the theory. Much research has also examined the potentially disruptive effects of technology and social media on the traditional model of social penetration.
Bibliography
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