Postmodernism

This article provides an introduction to postmodernism. What began in the 1930s as an architectural movement has now influenced nearly every academic discipline in the humanities, from literary analysis to anthropology to education. Despite its far-reaching impact, postmodernism is difficult to define, largely because postmodernists themselves reject the idea that any phenomenon can be understood in just one way. Nonetheless, the following will attempt to introduce some of the core ideas of postmodernism, first by outlining its development in response to modernism, and then by looking at the work of several key postmodernist philosophers, including Lacan, Lyotard, Foucault, and Derrida. The impact of postmodernism on education, in terms of student-teacher relationships, research, and curriculum development is discussed. Finally, because postmodernism is one of the most widely contested recent developments in academia, some of its criticism is also presented.

Overview

According to Clark (2006), "the reach of postmodernism on human thought has been extremely pervasive." What began in the early 1930s as an architectural movement has now touched nearly every academic discipline in the humanities, from literary analysis to anthropology to educational theory. In addition to its far-reaching impact, however, there are two other characteristics of the postmodern movement that deserve equal attention: its contentiousness and its inability to be clearly defined. Indeed, postmodernism has spawned disagreements within universities and academic departments that have no rivals in modern times. As Bloland (2005) explains, these disagreements often deteriorate into "bitter word warfare." It may seem surprising that a movement so pervasive and so contentious is also one that has yet to be clearly defined, as any attempt to provide a unitary definition would be antithetical to postmodernism itself.

A promising place to begin might be with a brief discussion of what postmodernism is certainly not. Usher & Edwards (1994) write, "In some ways it is easier to discern what it is against than what it is for." And what it is against, as its name suggests, is modernism. Modernity defines a period of time beginning with the Enlightenment in the late eighteenth century; modernism refers, in part, to the central organizing principles of the Enlightenment itself. These principles are typically delineated as: the centrality of reason, the belief in progress, access to truth, individual agency, and faith in the scientific method. And education as we know it, Usher and Edwards (1994) argue, is largely founded on these very same beliefs. "Historically, education can be seen as the vehicle by which...the Enlightenment ideals of critical reason, individual freedom, progress and benevolent change, are substantiated and realized." If postmodernism is against modernity, and education itself is modeled upon modern principles, one might wonder how postmodernism and education can be reconciled? What does education look like in a postmodern world?

Usher & Edwards further explain that, "certainly, [Postmodernism] is not a term that designates a systematic theory or comprehensive philosophy. Neither does it refer to a 'system' of ideas or concepts in the conventional sense, nor is it the name denoting a unified social or cultural movement." Postmodernism resists universal, all-encompassing, fixed understandings of phenomena and thus attempting to provide a singular or totalizing understanding of postmodernism is necessarily a contradiction. Indeed, the International Encyclopedia of Education (1994) says of postmodernism, "it may be better to see [it] as a complex intellectual map of late twentieth century thought and practice rather than any clear-cut philosophic, political, and/or aesthetic movement." But if postmodernism resists definition, it also said to resist seriousness.

Many individuals have contributed to postmodern thought, but particular names appear in the literature more than others. The central tenets of this 'complex intellectual map' may be reviewed by looking at the contributions of key individuals—Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault, and Lacan—and begin with Jean-François Lyotard because in describing postmodernism as "incredulity toward metanarratives" (as cited in Blake, Smeyers, Smith, & Standish, 1998), he may shed the most light on the movement's resistance to definition.

The Demise of Grand Narratives

Jean-François Lyotard was interested in language and made a distinction between 'the language games' of scientific knowledge and narrative knowledge; the former declaring itself the only legitimate language, the latter celebrating diversity, or rather "a form of tolerance toward other discourses" (Usher & Edwards, 1994). Ironically, Lyotard argued, scientific knowledge relies on narrative knowledge to legitimate itself, even though it claims such narrative knowledge does not exist. The narrative knowledge science relies on to legitimate itself, what Lyotard calls grand or meta narratives, are ultimately two myths: that science leads to progress or the betterment of humanity, and that science contributes to uncovering the 'truth.' These grand narratives, however, have lost their ability to confer legitimacy as society has become skeptical, or rather, incredulous. What happens when grand narratives are abandoned? According to Lyotard, in the absence of universals and totalizing theories, small narratives take their place and small narratives—given the mere fact that they are innumerable, yet each legitimate in its own right—create room for multiplicity of meaning.

Lyotard, in addition to coining the term "incredulity toward grand narratives," is also credited with introducing the notion of performativity. Knowledge, rather than being judged according to its 'truth', he argued, is judged according to its efficiency or inefficiency, or performativity. As Usher (2006) explains, "Performativity is a critical feature of incredulity where the questions asked of knowledge become not just—is it true?—or does it contribute to human progress?—but what use is it?—and how will it enhance the performance of people and organizations?"

Deconstruction

If Lyotard is forever linked with the notion of 'incredulity' then Derrida is equally wedded, in the minds of many scholars, with the idea of deconstructing text. The first thing to understand is that 'text' refers to everything—or as Derrida himself once said, "there is nothing outside of text" (as cited in Hagen, 2005)—rather than simply words on a page, as is its traditional meaning. Therefore, text might refer to a theory of learning, rules of a game, a conversation, a film or a performance. Deconstruction, in Derrida's sense, is also more than its literal meaning, or the notion of 'taking apart.' As Parker (1997) argues, deconstruction is "a strategy," and one aimed specifically at unearthing contradiction and paradox. Deconstruction aims to turn the logic of a text upon itself, "showing that there is an inherent contradiction concealed at the rational heart of... any text," and that rationality itself is simply an attempt to convince an audience of the truth of a text. Many argue that deconstruction is, as its name implies, destructive, breaking down text and revealing its 'folly' but leaving nothing in its place. Others argue that deconstruction is also affirmative, and that Derrida is clear about what he wants to affirm. For Derrida, deconstruction brings into focus what has been excluded from the text, or otherness. "Deconstruction urges recognition and respect for what is different, left out, or queer. It is [the] positive response to the 'other,' to those persons and situations different from the 'norm'" (Garrison, 2003).

Multiple Subjectivities

If postmodernism is about bringing multiplicity of meaning into the spotlight, and rejecting universals, then it is also about destabilizing the notion of 'self' and the recognition of multiple subjectivities. Jacques Lacan, who spent much of his academic career critiquing Freud's psychoanalysis, helped define the postmodern subject. Like Freud, Lacan agreed that subjectivity is largely determined by the unconscious and human desire. Unlike Freud, however, Lacan rejects the notion that desire can be explained by biology, or reduced to the idea of instincts or drives. Rather, desire is human, relational, constituted through language and unconscious. Because subjectivity is derived from desire, and desire is always social, Lacan's subject can no longer be viewed as a stable, centered, unitary whole. Rather, as Usher and Edwards explain, "If the self is always constructed through the way others see it, then it cannot be autonomous and coherent...any sense of selfhood is therefore continually shifting." Kilgore (2004) emphasizes the decentered subject in relation to the educational setting when she describes the postmodern learner as "always becoming, always in process, always situated in a context that also is always becoming."

Power and Knowledge

Discussing key ideas of postmodernism in relation to a single scholar is somewhat arbitrary and an obvious oversimplification. Michel Foucault, for example, discussed multiple subjectivities too, just as other scholars emphasized the relationship between knowledge and power. Nevertheless, Foucault's work is often cited when discussing power. First and foremost, Foucault emphasized that knowledge and power are intertwined, and necessarily so. He writes, "Knowledge and power are integrated with one another and there is no point in dreaming of a time when knowledge will cease to depend on power" (as cited in Usher & Edwards, 1994). Modernists, by contrast, believe that knowledge is separate from power, a claim Foucault argues simply reifies their own power and marginalizes other forms of knowledge. Secondly, Foucault was one of the first to suggest that power is not something possessed by individuals as is traditionally thought, but rather exists in cultural practices, institutions, systems of thought, or what he refers to as discourse. As a result, power is not necessarily exerted physically or coercively, but rather operates more subtly, and is more pervasive. This type of power, what Foucault calls disciplinary power, is "targeted at the body of the person" who then becomes both disciplinarian and the disciplined. In other words, individuals both resist power, but also participate in their own oppression.

Applications

Postmodernism presents ideas that are a bit difficult to reconcile with traditional ideas about education. If we are not rational, self-governing individuals, how can we conceptualize ourselves as students? If there are no longer universal truths, who decides what should be taught? If the scientific method has failed us, how do we conduct research?

Student-Teacher Relationship

Given the postmodernist's emphasis on multiplicity of meaning and the relationship between knowledge and power, it might be of little surprise to learn that many take issue with traditional roles such as student and teacher. According to Kilgore (2004), for example, moving toward a postmodern pedagogy involves "some degree of rejection of social positions like teacher and student, resulting in the emergence of a local, collective way of knowing and learning." Because postmodernists believe that the "transmissions of truth is a nostalgic dream" teachers are no longer imbued with the same authority as they are in traditional classrooms; Kilgore calls for 'the death of the teacher,' putting in its place a 'self-directed' learning environment where students are at the center of their own learning experience. But Kilgore also suggests redefining students as 'learners', in an attempt to value the multiplicity of roles and experiences they bring to the classroom, all of which constitute their subjectivity as much if not more so than the role of student.

Research

Postmodernists reject the idea that truth is attainable through science and also reject the scientific method itself, all of which begs the question: how do postmodernists conduct research? Certainly, the way in which research is conducted differs, and the ends toward which postmodern research aims are different as well, but the result, postmodernists argue, is worthwhile nonetheless. First and foremost, the conceptualization of the researcher shifts from an objective outsider to an individual intricately involved with the study at hand. As Ramaekers (2006) argues, "The (re)introduction of the subjective, the (re)emphasizing of the researcher's investment, does not signify an abdication of truth and knowledge, but a fuller acknowledgement of human involvement in understanding the world." In addition, postmodernists no longer view the researcher as the authority on the research conducted; as Rolfe (2006) writes, "The authorial voice is no more privileged than the interpretations given to the text by its many and varied readers."

In addition to shifts in the role of the researcher, the end goal of research shifts as well. Postmodernists, rather than promising truth or final answers, instead aim to contribute to discussion and debate. Ramaekers (2006) explains, "In terms of educational research, the reliable answers that teachers and policymakers are (said to be) looking for are not (and cannot be) offered ready-to-hand by the educational researcher. Rather, what is offered is the possibility of dialogue." Rolfe, in a slightly different approach to the discussion of aims, argues that postmodernist researchers don't necessarily avoid making judgments, but simply rely on different criteria in order to make them. Rather than relying on validity or truth, in the traditional sense, to discern the quality of research findings, Rolfe argues educators need to rely on their own common sense and experience, what he calls prudence or practical wisdom. Based on the degree of experience, some educators will be better suited to make such judgments than others.

Curriculum

Postmodernism's impact on education is arguably the greatest with respect to curriculum. If knowledge itself has been fragmented, multiplied, and localized, and universal truths have been undermined, how do you decide what to teach? Parker (1997), although perhaps representing an extreme view, writes simply, "as for curriculum, get rid of it." What he advocates in its place is a more personalized approach to learning, where students are more intimately connected to the subject matter. "Postmodern teachers will construct pedagogy out of local interests and concerns where worth and value is set within a narrative in which its players have a stake and a voice." By contrast, Parker (1997) argues that a national, standardized curriculum alienates children because they "recognize the humiliation of living as the distant effects of others' preferences." Reichenbach (1999) makes a similar argument for localizing curricula in the absence of universal criteria; agreement about curricular matters must still be reached, he explains, even though different groups may propose equally valid alternatives. Rather than expecting consensus about such matters to be reached nationally, however, educators should make such decisions on a much smaller scale. "The claims of the postmodern curricula become more modest: consensus becomes local."

Viewpoints

The only thing one can say about postmodernism with any degree of certainty is what it is not; postmodernism developed in response to modernism—the belief in progress, access to truth, faith in the scientific method—and thus is in itself an argument against the modernist approach. Postmodernism is a contentious issue, and thus, it is perhaps time to turn the stage over to its critics. Giving voice to all of modernist's rebuttals would require far more time and space than we have here, but the following serve as a sample.

First and foremost, modernists take issue with the logic, or as they might argue, lack thereof, of postmodernists reasoning. As Barrow and Woods (2006) point out, if postmodernists are claiming that there is not truth, that we cannot know anything, how can this statement itself have any validity? "To get away with credit for perceiving correctly that there is no such thing as being correct would certainly be to have one's cake and eat it too." Secondly, modernists argue that indeed we can make claims about truth with respect to certain things. Barrows and Woods provide a simple example—the fact that nothing can be both a circle and a square—as evidence of truth. They write:

"Not only is it clearly the case that there must be some truths, it is also surely evident that to deny this involves a degree of insincerity and bad faith. For who does (who could) live their life on the genuine presumption that there is no such thing as truth? Our daily life is predicated on the assumption that some things are true and others not; that is why we generally catch the bus [on time], don't eat rat poison, and exercise. No philosopher who claims that he does not believe in truth is telling the truth."

Stated differently, modernist's belief in our ability to discern truth translates into a critique of postmodernism for its tendency to slip into relativism. If all truths are equally valid, how can we make judgments about anything? If 'anything goes' and we are unable to make distinctions between good and bad, truth and falsehood, how do we make decisions not just in education, but in life? Furthermore, the consequences of such thinking, modernists argue, can be catastrophic; postmodernism is not simply an academic debate taking place in the ivory tower, but is changing the practice of education itself. In the field of special education, for example, Polsgrove and Orcha (2004) write, "[Postmodernism] is significantly affecting the course of educational programs for children with all types of disabilities. The atmosphere of uncertainty has fostered the general impression in the field that any intervention is acceptable without the need for documentation of effectiveness" (as cited in Kauffman & Sasso, 2006).

Finally, postmodernists accuse modernists of monopolizing truth claims, without reflecting upon or criticizing their own claims to truth. As Rapp (2003) argues, however, the Western tradition is "dialectical at its core." That is, "it cannot be pinned down easily, because it is full of tensions, complexities, varieties of emphasis, and precarious balances which are always under scrutiny (and sometimes under sharp attack) from within the tradition itself." Thus, modernism is not as unified, reified, and normalized as postmodernists would claim, but rather is shifting itself, in response to its own internal contradictions and tensions. In addition, modernists take issue with postmodernist's conceptualization of the scientific method. As Bereiter (1994) argues, "objectivity...is not an essential claim of science, but progress is." In other words, those adhering to the scientific method don't shy away from disagreement or alternative points of view, but they do believe such disagreements and viewpoints will lead to greater understanding. As Bereiter explains, "It is not necessary to believe that science is approaching some objective truth, but it is necessary to believe that today's knowledge is better than yesterday's."

Terms & Concepts

Deconstruction: A term largely associated with Derrida and used in reference to 'deconstruction of texts.' Texts, according to postmodernists, refer to everything - texts in the traditional sense, a performance, a film, a conversation. Deconstructing a text involves turning the logic of the text against itself, so that the inherent contradictions and paradoxes are uncovered. Some view deconstruction as merely destructive, but Derrida believed it was also affirmative in that it identifies and affirms 'the Other' excluded from the text.

Discourse: A term used by Foucault to help describe the location of power, as no longer being something possessed by people, but something expressed through our social practices and institutions. Discourses, then, are systems of thought that represent what can be said and who can say it. They operate behind the scenes, and while authorizing some 'voices,' exclude others.

Enlightenment: The period of history beginning in the eighteenth century, often identified as the beginning of modernism. It was during this time that reason, science, and rationality emerged as a challenge to the traditional authority of the Middle Ages, which was often based on superstition and irrationality.

Grand Narratives: One of the most well-known definitions of postmodernism is Lyotard's "incredulity toward grand narratives." He defined grand narratives as the 'myths' used to validate science - the belief in progress and the belief in our ability to access truth. Lyotard argues that these narratives have failed, and therefore our societies have become increasingly suspicious, or incredulous, of these them and other universal and totalizing claims.

Modernism: Postmodernism developed in reaction to modernism, a philosophical orientation that began with the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century. In general, modernists believe in the centrality of reason, progress, access to truth, individual agency, and the scientific method.

Performativity: A term coined by Lyotard and offered as an alternative way to assess the merit of knowledge, rather than assessing it on its contribution to progress or its truth. Performativity essentially translates to efficiency; that is, knowledge is judged according to how efficient, effective, or useful it is.

Power: Postmodernists believe that power and knowledge are intertwined. Foucault's notion of power is one of the most often-cited; he suggested that power does not necessarily operate physically or coercively as it once did, but rather is more subtle and pervasive. People don't possess power, but rather power resides in our discourses - our institutions, our systems, our cultural practices, our bodies. People therefore participate in their own repression, but also resist.

Relativism: Often contrasted with objectivism, the notion of universal notions of truth. For relativists, all claims to truth are equally valid, and there are no criteria to judge the worth of one in relation to another. One of modernist's criticisms of postmodernism is that it advocates relativism.

Subjectivity: Subjectivity is a term that represents our thoughts about personhood. For modernists, subjectivity is defined as a unified whole; there is consistency to who we are, and we are self-governing individuals. For postmodernists, subjectivity comprises multiple selves, and always defined in relation to other people in our environment.

Bibliography

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Suggested Reading

Ball, S. J. (Ed.). (1990). Foucault and education. New York, NY: Routledge.

Derrida, J. (1978). Writing and difference. trans. A. Bass. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Lyotard, Jean-Francois .(1984) The Postmodern condition: a report on knowledge. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Foucault, M. (1969). The Archaeology of knowledge. New York, NY: Routledge.

Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York, NY: Vintage Books.