Somalia

Full name of country: Federal Republic of Somalia

Region: Africa

Official language: Somali, Arabic

Population: 13,017,273 (2024 est.)

Nationality: Somali(s) (noun), Somali (adjective)

Land area: 627,337 sq km (242,216 sq miles)

Water area: 10,320 sq km (3,985 sq miles)

Capital: Mogadishu

National anthem: "Qolobaa Calankeed" (Every Nation Has its own Flag), by Lyrics/Music: Abdullahi Qarshe

National holiday: Foundation of the Somali Republic, July 1 (1960); note - June 26 (1960) in Somaliland

Population growth: 2.55% (2024 est.)

Time zone: UTC +3

Flag: The flag of Somalia features a five-pointed white star centered on a light blue background. The five points of the white star are said to represent the five Somali regions within the Horn of Africa.

Independence: July 1, 1960 (from a merger of British Somaliland that became independent from the UK on June 26, 1960 and Italian Somaliland that became independent from the Italian-administered UN trusteeship on July 1, 1960, to form the Somali Republic)

Government type: federal parliamentary republic

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Legal system: mixed legal system of civil law, Islamic law, and customary law (referred to as Xeer)

Occupying the easternmost portion of the Horn of Africa, Somalia is bordered by Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya, with the Gulf of Aden to the north and the Indian Ocean to the south. Somalia was known to the ancient Egyptians as the "Land of Punt," a place famed for its frankincense and myrrh.

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, several colonial powers became interested in exploiting Somalia’s resources and protecting trade routes through the Suez Canal. Only in 1960, with independence, was the territory united as a country, but in 1991 it descended into civil war. Though new prospects for peace seem to be developing, the country still lacks a strong central government. Two areas, Somaliland and Puntland, have seen major secessionist movements, and while both have made some progress toward establishing their own stable central governments, neither had received significant international recognition by 2023.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

Somalia's HDI value for 2022 is 0.380— which put the country in the Low human development category—positioning it at the rank of 193 out of 193 countries and territories.

People and Culture

Population: Somalia’s population is young, with 41.4 percent of Somalis age fourteen or younger in 2023. The infant mortality rate is one of the highest in the world, at 83.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births. Average life expectancy at birth is 56.5 years—54.1 years for men and 59 years for women (2024 estimates).

The Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook estimated Somalia's population at nearly 13,017,273 million in 2024, but noted that “this estimate was derived from an official census taken in 1975 by the Somali Government; population counting in Somalia is complicated by the large number of nomads and by refugee movements in response to famine and clan warfare.” Most non-nomadic peoples occupy the fertile south, near the country’s two major rivers. Somalia is one of the least developed countries in the world.

Approximately 47.9 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 2023. Large portions of the non-urbanized population are nomadic. Mogadishu is the largest city, with an estimated population of nearly 2.61 million in 2023. Other urban centers include Hargeysa, Kismaayo, and Marka.

Ethnic Somalis make up about 85 percent of the population, making Somalia one of Africa's most ethnically homogenous countries. A Cushitic people, they organize their society according to ancient clan designations. Though there are many clans and subclans, most Somalis belong to one of four major clans. Non-Somali minorities include Bantu and Arabs.

Somali, the dominant language of the country, is an Eastern Cushitic language within the Afro-Asiatic language superfamily. It has several dialects, of which Common Somali is the most widely spoken. Since 1973, it has been written in a modified Latin script. Arabic is another official language, according to the Transitional Federal Charter of 2012. Italian and English are also spoken by smaller numbers of people.

Somalis accepted Islam around the eighth century, and Sunni Islam is Somalia’s official religion according to the Transitional Federal Charter. Before the rise of Islam, Somalis held animist beliefs, which they subsequently incorporated into the newer religious system.

Radical Islam gained some adherents during the 1990s. Al-Shabaab, a Somali Islamic extremist group, took over the southern part of Somalia in 2006. Although the group was forced out of Mogadishu in 2011 and from Kismayo in 2012, it has continued to carry out suicide attacks and other forms of terrorism in Mogadishu and other areas of Somalia. Despite efforts to combat the group, Al-Shabaab remained active throughout the 2010s and 2020s in Somalia and also carried out terror attacks in Ethiopia, Kenya, and other countries in the region.

Indigenous People: Ethnic Somalis have ancient roots in the Horn of Africa, having arrived in the region before 100 CE. Despite the ethnic homogeneity of the population and a shared cultural and religious background, loyalty is given foremost to one’s clan rather than to a national identity. Intense rivalries between clans have long fostered political in-fighting and, in the most extreme case, sparked a long-running civil war in 1991.

Education: Educational opportunities have been limited at all levels in Somalia since the country descended into civil war in 1991. Most schools closed, and the schools that do manage to function have low enrollment and only the most basic materials, especially in rural areas. Little up-to-date information on the educational system is available, though an estimated 40 percent of school-age children are enrolled in school, among the lowest rates in the world. In addition, more boys than girls receive an education. While literacy data is not widely available, a 2012 report by the United Nations found an adult literacy rate of just 31.4 percent (35.8 percent among men and 26.9 percent among women).

In the 2010s, Somali schools were neither free nor compulsory. Primary school lasts for six years, followed by two years of lower secondary and four years of upper secondary. Upper secondary schooling may entail a standard general education or vocational training. The country’s only state-owned university prior to the war, Somali National University in Mogadishu, closed in the early 1990s as part of the broader collapse of the educational system. It reopened in 2014 amid a changing educational landscape, as dozens of new higher education institutes were established in the meantime, though with little oversight or regulation.

Health Care: War and instability destroyed much of Somalia’s health-care system. Hospitals, clinics, trained personnel, and medical supplies are all in short supply. As a result, the health of Somalis is generally compromised.

Unclean drinking water, poor sanitation, malnutrition, refugees, and a high infant mortality rate are all widespread problems. Many diseases are prevalent or have occasional outbreaks, including intestinal illnesses, malaria, Rift Valley fever, typhoid fever, hepatitis A and E, dengue fever, and schistosomiasis. Many Somalis rely on traditional medicine, which often employs practices based on superstition.

Food: Somalia’s distinct cuisine depends heavily on meat. Sheep and goat meat are popular, but camel meat is considered the best. It is eaten boiled, roasted and dried; in the latter form, it is fried with butter and spices and brought on long journeys by nomads.

Camels are also important sources of fat and milk, which is drunk in copious amounts and used to make butter and a yogurt called jinow. Pasta was widely eaten during the Italian colonial period and is still popular; rice, sorghum, and cornmeal are typical grains. Popular drinks include fruit juices and spiced tea.

Arts & Entertainment: Literature, particularly in oral form, is one of the foremost cultural activities in Somalia. Poems and songs are often memorized and recited in competition. The Somali writer Nuruddin Farah, who typically wrote in English while living in exile, became one of the country’s most famous literary figures during the twentieth century. Known primarily as a novelist, he wrote in many forms and received several international accolades. Maps (1986), Gifts (1993), and Secrets (1998) are three of his major works exploring the history and current affairs of his country.

Somalis enjoy conversing with family and friends, and place a high value on a person’s verbal skills. Many of them also enjoy chewing the mildly narcotic leaf called qat. Basketball and football are the most popular sports, while dancing and traditional music have wide appeal, especially during important ceremonies such as weddings.

Holidays: Most holidays in Somalia are Islamic religious holidays. Ramadan, the annual month-long fast between dusk and dawn, is ended with the three-day celebration called Eid al-Fitr. Another important holiday, Eid al-Adha, commemorates Ibrahim’s (Abraham’s) willingness to sacrifice his son to God. Both of these holidays are marked by gatherings of family and friends, large feasts, the donning of new clothes, prayers, dancing, and street festivals. Those who can afford it often kill an animal and distribute the meat to the poor. The birth of the Prophet Muhammad, Maulid, is marked in June. When drought prevails, the ceremony of roobdoon is performed, during which Qur’anic prayers are read in order to bring rain.

Independence Day is marked on June 26, and the Foundation of the Republic is observed on July 1. New Year’s Day, called Dabshid, is celebrated at the end of July.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Dry savannah-like plains and plateaus make up most of Somalia’s terrain. Their elevation ranges from about 180 meters (600 feet) in the south to about 500 meters (1,640 feet) in the north. The Karkaar Mountains rise in the far north. They range in elevation between 915 and 2,135 meters (3,000 and 7,000 feet), with the high point being Shimbiris at 2,460 meters (8,070 feet). The mountains extend from the northwest to the tip of the Horn of Africa.

Somalia’s coastline measures 3,025 kilometers (1,880 miles). It is predominantly straight, yielding few natural harbors. Wide sandy plains are common along both the coastline of the Gulf of Aden and the coastline of the Indian Ocean.

Numerous small water courses flow along shallow valleys during the rainy season, but Somalia has few major rivers. Only the Jubba River flows permanently, while the Shabelle River usually flows for about seven months of the year. Both rivers originate in the Ethiopian highlands and flow into southern Somalia, creating fertile river valleys on the plateau. The Jubba empties into the Indian Ocean, and the Shabelle disappears into the desert except in heavy rains, when it can flow into the Jubba near its mouth.

Natural Resources: Though Somalia has proven reserves of many natural resources, the lack of infrastructure and the lengthy civil war have prevented exploration and exploitation. Uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, manganese, copper, salt, and natural gas are present; oil reserves are also likely to be present.

Somalia’s environmental problems derive from the country’s scarce resources. Overgrazing has led to soil erosion and, in the more arid regions, to desertification. Deforestation is also occurring since many Somalis rely on wood for fuel. These problems contribute to the country’s frequent droughts and famines, which are increasing in intensity and length.

Plants & Animals: Few types of vegetation can withstand Somalia’s arid climate. Acacia trees and coarse shrubs and grass predominate on the plains and plateaus, though a brief cover of grass and wildflowers is common after rains. In the higher elevations of the north, aloe plants and various trees are found, including cedar, juniper, boswellia, and commiphora; from the latter two are derived frankincense and myrrh, respectively.

The country’s two major rivers make the south the most verdant area. Mahogany, euphoria, and eucalyptus trees grow there, in addition to shrubs and high grasses. Mangrove trees are found near the estuary of the Jubba River.

Elephants, cheetahs, lions, zebras, giraffes, rhinoceroses, antelopes, warthogs, wild asses, and crocodiles are found in Somalia. There are also populations of eagles, bustards, and storks, and several types of poisonous snakes. The African wild ass and the hartebeest are listed as critically endangered, while among those considered vulnerable are the African elephant, the lion, and the cheetah. The civil war has caused problems for the country’s wildlife, and there is also a growing illicit trade in the rarer animals.

Climate: Outside of the rainy seasons, one long and one short, most of Somalia has a hot and dry climate. Monsoon winds from the northeast dictate a very dry season between September and December, and rainy seasons between April and June and in October and November; rain patterns are variable, however. Average annual precipitation measures about 280 millimeters (11 inches), with some mountain areas receiving enough rainfall to sustain forests.

Between the dry and rainy seasons, humidity is generally high. The average annual temperature is around 28 degrees Celsius (82 degrees Fahrenheit), though the coastal plains can be much hotter and the northern mountains can experience night-time temperatures below freezing.

During the dry months, droughts are a serious problem threatening people, livestock, and the already sparse vegetation; even deep wells can dry up. Sand storms are also common in this period. During the rainy season, floods can occur. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 killed several hundred Somalis and destroyed property along the coast of the Indian Ocean.

Economy

War, famine, drought, and some degree of international isolation have wreaked havoc with Somalia’s already fragile economy. Somalia's gross domestic product (GDP), in purchasing power parity, was estimated at US$26.351 billion in 2023. However, the government is mostly unable to collect domestic revenue and has a large amount of external debt. The labor force, is comprised primarily of agricultural laborers and contains few skilled workers.

Industry: Industry accounts for a small portion of Somalia's GDP. Many of the country’s factories have been damaged in the war or dismantled and sold for scrap. The few that still operate depend on local agricultural products, such as sugar refineries and textile production facilities, or deal with information technology such as wireless communication. The presence of oil and natural gas reserves as well as valuable minerals has the potential to attract investors once the country becomes politically stable.

Agriculture: Agriculture accounted for nearly two-thirds of Somalia's GDP throughout the 2010s, though the sector suffered significantly due to consecutive poor rainy seasons in the early 2020s, which worsened food insecurity for millions of people in Somalia.

The fertile south, along and between Somalia’s two major rivers, is the center of cultivation, though significant rainfall in the northern highlands allows modest farming. The major crops are bananas, sorghum, corn, coconuts, rice, sugarcane, mangoes, sesame seeds, and beans.

The raising of livestock has historically been, and remains, one of Somalia’s most important economic activities, typically accounting for about 40 percent of GDP and 50 percent of export earnings. A large portion of the land is suitable for grazing, and traditional herding routes are well established between deep wells.

Cattle, sheep, goats and camels are the predominant livestock, with the camel being of particular importance given its ability to survive harsh climatic conditions and transport nomads and their gear. A ban in 2000 by the Persian Gulf States on livestock from the Horn of Africa, following an outbreak of Rift Valley fever, dealt a serious blow to the sector. The ban was partially lifted in 2005. Saudi Arabia lifted and then re-applied bans throughout the 2010s, with the ban remaining active into the 2020s.

Tourism: Since the beginning of the civil war, Somalia has seen few tourists. A wrecked infrastructure, as well as lawlessness and violence (which has sometimes targeted Westerners), has put the hopes for significant tourist revenue far into the future.

However, the country has potential to offer many tourist attractions. These include camel treks, ancient rock paintings, a long, rugged coastline, and a range of big game animals, as well as rich cultural attractions.

Government

A military coup in 1969 ousted the democratic rule installed by Western colonial powers in the region. After a popular uprising ousted the ruling regime in 1991, Somalia lacked a central government, with warlords and their clans battling each other for control. The south, including the capital Mogadishu, was essentially lawless, leading to a US-led United Nations humanitarian intervention, later joined by a separate US military operation attempting to restore order. While the intervention was partially successful in halting famine conditions, the landing of US Marines in Mogadishu proved disastrous, failing to establish political stability and withdrawing in 1994 after enduring significant casualties. The clans of the north and center of the country, meanwhile, were able to form self-governing administrative units in Somaliland and Puntland, both of which developed significant separatist movements. Somaliland became more stable after declaring its secession from the troubled south.

The transitional federal government lasted from 2004 until September 2012, when the transition process ended and clan elders replaced the Transitional Federal Parliament with the new Federal Parliament, initially consisting of a single chamber, the 275-seat House of the People. Members are elected by regional delegates to four-year terms. Parliament then elects the president by a two-thirds majority vote to a single four-year term; the president is the chief of state and is responsible for appointing the prime minister, who serves as head of the government. The appointment must be approved by the House of the People. The prime minister is responsible for appointing the cabinet, which also must be approved by the House of the People.

The Federal Parliament became bicameral in 2016 with the creation of the fifty-four-seat Upper House. Members of the Upper House are called senators and are elected by state assemblies to four-year terms. Despite these efforts at political reform and the holding of two presidential elections between 2012 and 2022, the country's central government remained fragile into the 2020s despite efforts toward greater stability.

Somalia’s provisional 2012 constitution mandates the creation of the Constitutional Court, which would head the judicial branch. Although the 2004 Transitional National Charter established a Supreme Court and an Appeal Court, most judicial matters have since reverted to local authority. Some clans employ a secular system of arbitration, whereas others employ the Islamic system of sharia law.

Somalia is divided into eighteen administrative regions.

Interesting Facts

• Somalia became a leader in wireless communication service for the African continent.
• Somalia has the longest coastline in mainland Africa.
• Somalia has a reputation as a haven for modern pirates; a 2009 raid against a US-registered ship earned widespread media attention, especially after the captain was taken hostage and later rescued by US Navy SEALs. The situation was dramatized in the 2013 feature film Captain Phillips.
• Some of the oldest rock art in the world, dating back to around 3000 to 1000 BCE, has been found in Somalia.

Bibliography

"About UNDP in Somalia." UNDP in Somalia, United Nations Development Programme, www.so.undp.org/content/somalia/en/home/about-us.html. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

Human Development Insights, United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025.

"Somalia." UNICEF Data: Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women, UNICEF, data.unicef.org/country/som/. Accessed 11 July 2018.

"Somalia." The World Bank, World Bank, 2022, data.worldbank.org/country/somalia. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025.

"Somalia." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 16 Dec. 2024, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025.

"Somalia Country Profile." BBC News, 26 Apr. 2023, www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094503. Accessed 7 Jan. 2025.