Adolescent psychology and sexuality

• TYPE OF PSYCHOLOGY: Developmental psychology

Adolescent sexuality examines the physical, psychological, and behavioral changes that occur as individuals leave childhood, acquire sexual maturity, and incorporate the various aspects of sexuality into their identity.

Introduction

Perhaps no single event during the adolescent years has as dramatic or widespread effects as the realization of sexuality. The lives of adolescents become wrapped in this new dimension. Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, and of incorporating sexuality into one’s identity. These processes determine adolescents’ comfort with their own emerging sexuality as well as with that of others. Adolescents are also beginning to be involved in intimate relationships, a context in which sexual activity often occurs.

In the twenty-first century, many of the milestones by which adulthood is defined and measured—full-time employment, economic independence, domestic partnership or marriage, childbearing—are attained at later ages in people’s lives than they were in earlier generations, while puberty is beginning earlier. Therefore, adolescents face many years between the onset of puberty, fertility, and the natural intensification of sexual feelings, and committed relationships and economic independence. As a result, young people have sexual intercourse earlier in life, and there is a greater percentage of adolescents who are sexually experimenting at every age level, a greater number of acts of premarital intercourse, and a greater number of sexual partners before marriage.

Physical Changes

Adolescence is the life stage between childhood and adulthood. Its age limits are not clearly specified, but it extends roughly from age twelve to the late teens, when physical growth is nearly complete. Puberty, a term often confused with adolescence, occurs at the end of childhood and lasts from two to four years. It is the period of adolescence during which an individual reaches sexual maturity.

Human beings grow most rapidly at two times during their lives: before they are six months old and again during adolescence. The second period of accelerated growth is often referred to as the adolescent growth spurt. Adolescents grow in both height and weight, with the increase in height occurring first. As they gain weight, the amount and distribution of fat in their bodies change, and the proportion of bone and muscle tissue increases. In girls, the adolescent growth spurt usually begins between the ages of nine and eleven and reaches a peak at an average of twelve and a half years. Then growth slows and usually ceases completely between the ages of fifteen and eighteen. The growth spurt in boys generally begins about two years later than it does in girls and lasts for a longer time. It begins between the ages of eleven and fourteen, reaches a peak at about age fifteen, and slowly declines until age nineteen or twenty.

The teenager’s body grows at differing rates, so that at times adolescents look a bit awkward. Big feet and long legs are the early signs of a changing body, but even these changes do not occur at the same time. First the hands and feet grow, then the arms and legs; only later do the shoulders and chest grow to fit the rest of the developing body. Changes in body proportion become obvious. The trunk widens in the hips and shoulders, and the waistline narrows. Boys tend to broaden mostly in the shoulders, girls mostly in the hips.

Puberty is chiefly characterized by sexual development. Sexual development can be best understood by examining the maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Primary sex characteristics are the physiological features of the sex organs. For men, these organs are the penis and the testes; for women, they are the ovaries, uterus, clitoris, and vagina. Secondary sex characteristics are not directly related to the sexual organs, but nevertheless distinguish a man from a woman. Examples of secondary sex characteristics include the male beard and the female breasts.

In girls, the onset of breast development is usually, but not always, the first sign that puberty has begun. This typically occurs between the ages of ten and eleven but can begin as late as ages thirteen and fourteen. There is simultaneous development of the uterus and vagina, with enlargement of the labia and clitoris. Menarche (the first menstrual period), although perhaps the most dramatic and symbolic sign of a girl’s changing status, occurs relatively late in puberty, after the growth spurt has reached its peak velocity. The first menstrual periods tend to be irregular, and ovulation (the release of a mature egg) does not usually begin until a year or so after menarche. Age at menarche has decreased over time, with girls on average reaching menarche at ten and a half to eleven years of age. Researchers believe several factors have contributed to this trend, including rising rates of childhood obesity and environmental factors such as air pollution. Studies have also shown that the trend has been even more pronounced in girls of color and those belonging to a lower socioeconomic status.

The first noticeable change in boys is usually growth of the testes and scrotum. The growth of the genitals begins, on average, about the age of twelve and is completed, on average, by about the age of fifteen. Boys generally become capable of ejaculation about a year after the penis begins to grow. These first emissions may occur as a result of nocturnal emissions, the ejaculation of semen during sleep. Nocturnal emissions are a normal phase of development and are frequently caused by sexual excitation in dreams or by some type of physical condition, such as a full bladder or even pressure from pajamas.

As adolescents develop more adult bodies, their interest in sexual behavior increases sharply. They must learn the necessary behavior to satisfy that interest, and they must face the issue of a mature gender identity. This includes the expression of sexual needs and feelings and the acceptance or rejection of gender roles. The onset of dating and the beginning of physical intimacies with others can provoke frustration and anxiety. As this unfamiliar territory is explored, the adolescent is often poorly informed and overly self-conscious. Conflicting sexual values and messages are frequently encountered, accentuating the problem of integrating sexual drives with other aspects of the personality.

Psychological Adjustment

Adolescents are acutely aware of the rapid changes taking place in their bodies. How they react to such changes greatly affects how they evaluate themselves; it is in this manner that physical and psychological development are related.

Physical changes may cause psychological discomfort. Adolescents are particularly concerned about whether they are the “right” shape or size and whether they measure up to the “ideal” adolescent. Rapid growth, awkwardness, acne, voice changes, menarche, and other developments may produce emotional distress. Therefore, it is not surprising that the timing of physical and sexual maturity may have an important influence on psychosocial adjustment. Adolescents are generally concerned about anything that sets them apart from their peers. Being either the first or the last to go through puberty can cause considerable self-consciousness.

In general, boys who mature early have a distinct advantage over those who mature late. They tend to be more poised, easygoing, and good-natured. They are taller, heavier, and more muscular than other boys their age. They are also more likely to excel in sports, achieve greater popularity, and become school leaders. The ideal form for men in American society, as represented by the media, is that of the postpubescent male. Therefore, early entry into puberty draws boys closer to the male “ideal.” In contrast, late-maturing boys not only are smaller and less developed than others in their age group but also are not as interested in dating. When they do become interested in girls, they often lack social skills and are more likely to feel inadequate, anxious, and self-conscious. These personality characteristics tend to persist into early adulthood, although they may become less marked and often disappear as time goes by.

For girls, early maturation appears to be a mixed blessing. Girls who mature early grow taller, develop breasts, and go through menarche as much as six years before some of their peers. Their larger size and more adult physique may make them feel conspicuous and awkward, while at the same time they may be popular with boys and experience more dating opportunities. They also may have to deal with parents and other caregivers who have reacted to their early sexual development by being overly restrictive. The beauty ideal for women in American society, as portrayed by the media, is that of a prepubescent female. Changes in body fat related to puberty thus may lead to body image problems, as entry into puberty increases the distance from the beauty ideal just as girls become most interested in it. As with boys, the consequences of early and late maturation decrease over time. However, either early or late start of menarche seems significantly more difficult to deal with than more typical timing.

Sexual Behavior

Sexual maturation has other psychological consequences. In particular, patterns of sexual behavior change tremendously with the arrival of sexual maturity. As adolescents’ bodies become more adult, their interest in sexual behavior increases sharply; as they explore their sexual identities, they develop a sexual , or a stereotyped pattern for how individuals should behave sexually.

The sexual script for boys is frequently different from the sexual script for girls. As a result, boys and girls generally think differently about sex. This discrepancy can cause problems and confusion for adolescents as they struggle with their sexual identities. For boys, the focus of sexuality may be sexual conquest, to the point that young men who are nonexploitative or inexperienced may be ridiculed by their peers. Boys are more likely than girls to see intercourse as a way of establishing their maturity and of achieving social status. As a consequence, boys are more likely to have sex with someone who is a relative stranger, to have more sexual partners, and to disassociate sex from love and emotional intimacy.

Female adolescents are much more likely than male adolescents to link sexual intercourse with love. The quality of the relationship between a girl and her partner is often a very important factor. Women are less likely than men to list pleasure, pleasing their partner, and relieving sexual tension as reasons for having sex.

During the latter part of the twentieth century, attitudes toward sexual activity began to change dramatically. Views regarding premarital sex, extramarital sex, and specific sexual acts are likely more open and permissive in the twenty-first century than they have been at any other time in recent history. Young people are exposed to sexual stimuli on television and the internet to a greater extent than ever before. Effective methods of birth control have lessened the fear of pregnancy. All these changes have given adolescents more freedom. At the same time, the rise of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the late 1970s, the sharp increases in AIDS cases among heterosexual teenagers in the 1990s, and the increased concern over antibiotic-resistant gonorrhea and other sexually transmitted diseases have produced more conflict, since guidelines for “appropriate behavior” are less clear-cut than they were in the past. In some families, the divergence between adolescent and parental standards of sexual morality is great.

Research specifically directed toward the exploration of adolescent sexuality was not seriously undertaken until the 1950s and 1960s. Even then, the few studies that were conducted handled the topic delicately and focused on attitudes rather than behavior. When behavior was emphasized, age at first intercourse was generally selected as the major variable. Later studies have been more detailed and expansive; however, a paucity of research in this area still exists.

In Facing Facts (1995), Debra W. Haffner categorizes adolescent sexuality into three stages: early, middle, and late. In early adolescence (ages nine to thirteen for girls, eleven to fifteen for boys), experimenting with sexual behavior is common, although sexual intercourse is usually limited. This time period is characterized by the beginning of the process of separating from the family and becoming more influenced by peers. During middle adolescence (thirteen to sixteen for girls, fourteen to seventeen for boys), sexual experimentation is common, and many adolescents first have intercourse during this stage of life. The National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB), published in 2010 by Indiana University's Center for Sexual Health Promotion, found that about 28.4 percent of adolescents between the ages of fourteen and seventeen had engaged in partnered sexual behavior, with 18.0 percent reporting having given oral sex, 21.4 percent having received oral sex, 14.2 percent having engaged in mutual masturbation, and 21.5 percent having engaged in penetrative vaginal sex. In late adolescence (women, sixteen and older; men, seventeen and older), the process of physical maturation is complete. There is autonomy from family as well as from the peer group as adult roles are defined. Sexuality often becomes associated with commitment and planning for the future.

Awareness of sexual orientation often emerges in . A 2024 Gallup poll of LGBTQ Americans found that the average age at which youths were certain of their LGBTQ identity was fourteen years old.

Boys appear to initiate intercourse earlier than girls, but girls catch up by the late teens. The timing of puberty is important for boys, while for girls, social controls exert a greater influence than the onset of puberty. Girls who are academically engaged, have higher self-esteem, and have interests outside the dating culture are more likely to delay the onset of sexual activity. For both boys and girls, dual-parent families, higher socioeconomic status, parental supervision, and a close relationship with parents are all associated with delayed onset of sexual activity.

Contraceptive use among adolescents continues to increase. According to the NSSHB in 2010, more than 80 percent of adolescents reported using condoms during their most recent instance of vaginal intercourse, and 50 percent of females reported using hormonal contraceptives. The 2021 Youth Risk Behavior Survey administered by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that 51.8 percent of students had used condoms the last time they had intercourse, while about 20.9 percent had used birth control pills. Programs that improve teen access to contraceptives have not produced increased rates of sexual activity, but they have resulted in a significant decrease in teen pregnancy rates.

Social concerns such as teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and sex education have focused attention on the need to clearly understand the dynamics of adolescent sexuality. This awareness should continue to encourage broader perspectives for the study of teenage sexual behavior and produce detailed knowledge of adolescent sexuality.

Bibliography20

Alan Guttmacher Institute. Sex and America’s Teenagers. Author, 1994.

Columbia University Health Education Program. The "Go Ask Alice" Book of Answers: A Guide to Good Physical, Sexual, and Emotional Health. Holt, 1998.

Fortenberry, J. Dennis, et al. "Sexual Behaviors and Condom Use at Last Vaginal Intercourse: A National Sample of Adolescents Ages 14 to 17 Years." Findings from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB), Center for Sexual Health Promotion, Indiana University. Spec. issue of Journal of Sexual Medicine, vol. 7, no. S5, 2010, pp. 305–14. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Gilmore, Karen, and Pamela Meersand. Normal Child and Adolescent Development: A Psychodynamic Primer. Amer. Psychiatric, 2013.

Haffner, Debra W. Beyond the Big Talk: Every Parent’s Guide to Raising Sexually Healthy Teens—From Middle School to High School, and Beyond. Newmarket, 2001.

Kerig, Patricia K., Marc S. Schulz, and Stuart T. Hauser, eds. Adolescence and Beyond: Family Processes and Development. Oxford UP, 2012.

Libby, Roger W. The Naked Truth about Sex: A Guide to Intelligent Sexual Choices for Teenagers & Twentysomethings. Freedom, 2006.

Madaras, Lynda, and Area Madaras. The “What’s Happening to My Body?” Book for Boys. 3rd rev. ed., Newmarket, 2007.

Madaras, Lynda, and Area Madaras. The “What’s Happening to My Body?” Book for Girls. 3rd rev. ed., Newmarket, 2007.

McCarthy, Justin, and Rachael Yi. "LGBTQ+ Adults Are Coming Out at Younger Ages Than in the Past." Gallup News, 26 July 2024, news.gallup.com/poll/647636/lgbtq-adults-coming-younger-ages-past.aspx. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

"Menstrual Periods Are Arriving Earlier for Younger Generations, Especially Among Racial Minority and Lower-Income Individuals." Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 29 May 2024, hsph.harvard.edu/news/menstrual-periods-are-arriving-earlier-for-younger-generations-especially-among-racial-minority-and-lower-income-individuals/. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Paludi, Michele Antoinette, ed. The Psychology of Love. 4 vols., Praeger, 2012.

Slap, Gail B., ed. Adolescent Medicine. Mosby, 2008.

Szucs, Leigh E., et al. "Condom and Contraceptive Use Among Sexually Active High School Students--Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019." US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 69, no. 1, 21 Aug. 2020, pp. 11–18, DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.su6901a2. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

"YRBSS Results." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 31 Oct. 2024, www.cdc.gov/yrbs/results/index.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.