Canadian Confederation

The Confederation of Canada was the process by which the nation of Canada came into being in 1867. The confederation marked the merger of the British colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada into one political entity. Canada’s origins differ from the formation of many other nations from the era, as there was no revolution or sense of nationalism that sparked a sudden rush to change. Instead, Canada was created by a gradual process through a series of conferences and negotiations. Although it was seeking to become a self-governing nation, Canada was still under British rule, as evidenced by its official name, the Dominion of Canada. Britian’s Queen Victoria had to give her approval for the Confederation to take effect.

This occurred on July 1, 1867, a date that was known as Dominion Day until 1982. Since that time, the day has been officially known as Canada Day. The union of the British North American colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) was the first step in slow, but solid nation-building. Several other territories and provinces would eventually encompass modern Canada.

Background

While Viking explorers were the first Europeans to land in Canada about the year 1000, the permanent settlement of the region would not begin until the middle of the sixteenth century. French explorers claimed land along the eastern seaboard and St. Lawrence River that eventually became the colonies of New France and Acadia. In the seventeenth century, the British also began colonizing parts of North America, leading to several armed conflicts with the French. By 1763, Great Britian had emerged victorious over the French and seized control of all French land in what is today Canada.

After Great Britian lost the Revolutionary War (1775–1783) to its American colonies, the former French province of Quebec was divided into Upper Canada, which consisted of much of modern-day Ontario, and Lower Canada, which encompassed parts of Quebec, Ontario, and Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1841, Upper Canada and Lower Canada were combined to form the Province of Canada. British North America also included Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, the vast territories of Rupert’s Land, and the North-Western Territory.

By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britian had expanded its empire on a global scale, claiming colonies on every continent except for Antarctica. The British viewed defending their Canadian colonies as too expensive, while Canadians were worried that fragmented colonies could lead to an invasion and annexation by the United States.

What began as a desire for the Maritime Provinces to join a potential Confederation of British Canadian colonies became a mission for three key individuals from the Province of Canada—John A. Macdonald, George-Étienne Cartier, and George Brown. The three attended a conference in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. It was at this gathering that New Brunswick and Nova Scotia agreed to join the Confederation, while Prince Edward Island did not. Discussions continued the following month in Quebec City, where it was decided that Canada would have one federal government as well as governments in each province.

Overview

At the Quebec Conference, officials approved seventy-two resolutions, laying out the constitutional framework for the new country. The language was legalistic and contractual in tone, vastly different than the American Constitution that had been drafted a century earlier. Government power was to be divided between the provinces and the federal government. Cartier wanted strong power in the hands of the provinces, while Macdonald wanted a strong central government. A compromise was reached.

The Resolutions also created a national Parliament with a House of Commons where representation was based on population, and a Senate that would be appointed. The seats would be split among Canada West, Canada East, and the Atlantic colonies. The resolutions also called for the funding of the Intercolonial Railway from Quebec to the Maritimes. The goal of the railway was to increase trade. Some Maritime delegates said their joining Canada was conditional upon the rail line’s construction. With that agreed to, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were on board with the confederation. Prince Edward Island was hesitant to become a partner because it enjoyed a very strong economy. In the 1870s, Prince Edward Island was facing economic struggles due to the railway construction. In exchange for Canada taking over its loan payments, it joined the Confederation in 1873.

Meanwhile the people of Nova Scotia were divided, as Confederation was favored in the northern areas of the mainland. However, it was not supported along the south shore and in the Annapolis Valley, where prosperous shipping and agricultural industries were present.

Nova Scotia’s Premier Charles Tupper decided on joining the Confederation despite the naysayers. He believed it would be in the best interest of Nova Scotia. Tupper’s government was not up for re-election until after Confederation was finalized. By that time, it was too late for the 65 percent of Nova Scotians who opposed the idea to choose a new leader. New Brunswick also had little support for Confederation. In 1865, A.J. Smith was elected premier but his government only lasted a year and was replaced by a new government that favored Confederation.

Politicians from the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick met with British government delegates in London at the London Conference from December 1866 to February 1867. The colonies’ delegation was led by Macdonald. This was the final of three conferences held to determine the constitutional details of Confederation. The Quebec Resolutions—seventy-two points that had been agreed upon in Quebec City—were reviewed and amended. One of the biggest issues of concern was the education system. The Roman Catholic bishops sought a guarantee that would protect the separate schooling system. The Maritime delegates were opposed to this guarantee, but Section 93 of the Act signified that a compromise had been reached. They formed the basis of the British North America Act (now, the Constitution Act, 1867). It was passed by the British Parliament and received Queen Victoria’s Royal Assent on March 29, 1867. It was proclaimed into law on July 1, 1867.

Thirty-six men are thought of as the Fathers of Confederation. They include Brown, who was known for his persistence. Cartier was key in ensuring certain provincial rights, while Macdonald was the driving force behind getting everyone on board. The subject of who should be included among the Fathers of Confederation is contentious. Further names include those who were instrumental in bringing Manitoba (Louis Riel), British Columbia (Amor de Cosmos), Newfoundland and Labrador (Joey Smallwood), and Nunavut (Tagak Curley) into Confederation. Just as there were Fathers of the Confederation, the wives and daughters of the thirty-six men were also integral. They hosted social gatherings at the three conferences. Much was learned from the letters and journals of Anne Brown, wife of George Brown; Mercy Coles, daughter of Prince Edward Island Premier George Coles; and Agnes Macdonald, wife of John Macdonald. They also draw attention to the contributions those women made to the historic record and political landscape. Mercy Coles’ 1864 diary, Reminiscences of Canada, is one of the most detailed sources about the events that preceded Confederation. The diary includes descriptions of the Fathers of Confederation and their personalities. It brings to light the social politics of mid-nineteenth-century Canada.

Macdonald would become the country’s first prime minister in 1867. Ultimately, he would be the longest serving prime minister in Canadian history with nineteen years of service. He served two different stints as prime minister because he was forced to resign as prime minister in 1873. Macdonald was involved in negotiations for a contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway to British Columbia. It was said that Macdonald and members of his conservative cabinet accepted campaign contributions for the 1872 election from Sir Hugh Allan, who would end up receiving the contract to build CPR. In the election of 1874, his government was defeated. That defeat occurred at the beginning of a depression in Canada, making it appear that the Liberal government of Alexander Mackenzie was not effective.

In 1876, at the urging of a group of Montreal manufacturers, Macdonald began to advocate for new economic policies. These policies helped him return to power in 1878. He remained prime minister until his death on June 6, 1891.The major project of his second term was completion of CPR. Macdonald awarded the contract to a new syndicate run by George Stephen.

The contract called for a government subsidy of $25 million and 25 million acres of land. Its completion in November 1885 made possible the future settlement of western Canada.

Canada continued to grow in the years and decades after Confederation. Manitoba and the Northwest Territories were created in 1870. They became a part of the Confederation at that time. The Northwest Territories gradually split into four provinces and territories and are known today as Yukon, which joined in 1898; Alberta and Saskatchewan, which joined in 1905; and Nunavut in 1999. Nunavut was created from part of the North-Western Territory in Canada’s Eastern Artic. British Columbia joined the Confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The final province to join was Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949.

Bibliography

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