Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture is an ancient style of architecture that has flourished in the Asian nation for thousands of years. The style has remained remarkably consistent, maintaining many of the same principles first seen in examples as far back as the third century BCE. The architectural stability mimics the country's cultural continuity—the Chinese culture is considered one of the oldest existing cultures in the world.

Chinese architecture differs from many other ancient civilizations in that the Chinese preferred to work in wood rather than stone. This makes studying architecture older than the third century BCE difficult, as most of the structures have deteriorated or been destroyed. Most structures were built on earthen platforms and had frames made of timber. The style was heavily influenced by Chinese philosophy, with buildings and rooms assigned their own order in a structural hierarchy and arranged in a symmetrical manner along a central axis. Palaces and religious structures were built along the same principles, but on a much grander scale. Beginning about the seventh century CE, Chinese architecture expanded its reach to influence the styles of other Asian nations.

Background

Evidence suggests the ancestors of modern humans lived in China as far back as seven hundred thousand to two hundred thousand years ago. Cultivation of rice is believed to have begun in the region about 6000 BCE, with a farming culture and primitive villages originating in the Yellow River valley about 5000 BCE. These farming communities eventually evolved into a centralized government and became what is believed to be China's first dynasty—the Xia dynasty—which lasted from about 2070 to 1600 BCE. The dynasty was long considered a legend until archaeological evidence discovered in the twentieth century seemed to support its existence.

The Chinese civilization is usually thought to have begun under the Shang dynasty, which ruled from about 1600 to 1046 BCE. The first historical records and inscriptions on bone and bronze objects originated during this period. China's longest-ruling dynasty was the Zhou dynasty, a highly influential period that lasted from 1046 to 256 BCE. Under the Zhou dynasty, China developed its long-standing philosophical and religious traditions that gave birth to Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism is a worldview that adheres to a code of ethical and social values. Daoism preaches living in harmony with the dao, or "way" of the universe.

The Zhou dynasty marked the transition of China from a slave-based tribal society to a feudal society. The idea that the ruler of China received his authority from a divine source also originated during this time. In the dynasty's later years, China was embroiled in political turmoil and the empire shattered into eight warring states. In 221 BCE, Ying Zheng, ruler of the Qin state, gained control of China and declared himself the nation's first emperor, taking the name Qin Shi Huang. It was under his rule that work began on the Great Wall of China, a defensive barrier that would eventually grow to its modern length of 13,171 miles (21,196 kilometers).

Qin Shi Huang was an oppressive ruler who died in 210 BCE. He was burned in a vast tomb along with an army of more than eight thousand terracotta warrior statues. In 206 BCE, a popular uprising led to the rise of the Han dynasty, which lasted until 220 CE. The empire flourished under the Han rulers and began a centuries-long practice of maintaining trade routes with the West. The Indian religious philosophy of Buddhism was introduced to China during this period. After the Han dynasty fell, China entered into an almost four-century-long period of war and political strife. At times, the nation was united under shifting regimes, but these periods were relatively brief.

China rebounded in the late sixth century under the Sui dynasty and the Tang dynasty. The Tang dynasty is considered the "golden age" of Chinese civilization as the nation rose to become the richest in the world. Tang rulers instituted a legal system, increased trade with the West, expanded the empire, and introduced Chinese religions, writing, and architecture to Japan, Vietnam, and Korea. The Song dynasty followed the Tang in 960 and was known for great strides in science and technology. Under this dynasty, China further developed its "four great inventions"—gunpowder, printing, paper, and the compass.

China fell under the rule of the Mongol Empire in the late thirteenth century and was ruled by Kublai Khan under the Yuan dynasty. In 1368, the Ming dynasty was overthrown and replaced by the Yuan dynasty. China experienced another era of growth; its capital was permanently moved to Beijing, and the Great Wall was finally completed. It was the Ming emperors who built themselves a grand imperial city known as the Forbidden City in 1420. The dynasty was overthrown and replaced with the Qing dynasty in 1644. Overthrown in a 1911 revolution, the Qing was China's last imperial dynasty. A year later, the last emperor was forced to abdicate, and the Republic of China was established. Another revolution in 1949 established a Communist government, and the People's Republic of China was born.

Overview

Archeologists believe the Chinese began building above-ground wooden buildings around 6000 BCE. Pressed earth and stone structures were also constructed during the period, but wood remained the primary building material. Excavations of prehistoric villages from about 5200 to 3700 BCE have revealed thatched homes built with wooden beams and sunken floors. The Chinese used wood largely because of its light weight and versatility, allowing for the construction of larger homes and buildings. The choice of material also means much of China's early architecture deteriorated or was destroyed over time. As a result, most of the oldest examples ever discovered date from the late Zhou dynasty in the third century BCE.

While wood may have been less permanent in the long run, its nature allowed for more flexibility in construction, making buildings more stable. Structures were usually constructed on a raised platform of packed earth. The weight of Chinese structures was mostly distributed on internal columns, with very little resting on the walls. To compensate for this, Chinese architects developed an interlocking system of brackets between the columns and ceiling beams called a dougong.

This style of construction allowed for an emphasis on a building's width, or horizontal appearance. This resulted in large, heavy platform roofs that seemed to rest above the vertical walls rather than on them. These roofs were usually covered in glazed ceramic tiles with curved overhanging eaves to protect the earthen foundation of the structure from the elements. The timber-frame construction of Chinese buildings likely forced this horizontal emphasis, lowering the structure's ceilings and limiting the height of each story. Most ancient Chinese buildings were single-storied.

Architecture, like almost all aspects of Chinese society, was heavily influenced by philosophy and religion. The social codes of Confucianism led to a building style that focused on hierarchal symmetry, with building complexes constructed around a central point that separated lower statues from the elite. Noble halls and religious buildings were given a central position of more prominence. Structures were expected to reflect their social status with a style that expressed their magnificence and importance. At the same time, this architectural beauty was also expected to retain an honest and simple style. Buildings with front-facing doors were considered more important than those with side-facing doors. Those in the rear of the complex were reserved for elders and important individuals; servants and those of lesser status lived in the front.

The belief in the Daoist concept of universal harmony was another major influence on Chinese architecture. Structures featured an emphasis on bilateral symmetry, in which a building was divided into two halves with each side an approximate mirror image of the other. Larger buildings were constructed around a central hall, while everyday structures had a smaller central room. An equal number of additional rooms were constructed on either side. For example, a noble residence may have featured a central courtyard with an identical layout of rooms spaced out on each wing of the structure. The symmetrical concept held true for palaces and royal compounds to simple farmhouses.

To reflect this universal balance, Chinese architecture employed the principles of feng shui, a philosophy that emphasized coordinating structural design to align with the harmonious energies of the universe. For example, a structure built facing water with its back to mountains was considered to bring good luck.

The most famous example of a Chinese palace complex is the vast Forbidden City, which served as the home of the emperor and his servants from the fifteenth to the early twentieth centuries. The nearly 7.8 million square foot (720,000 square meter) walled complex is home to almost 1,000 surviving buildings with more than 8,700 rooms. Liang Sicheng, known as the father of modern Chinese architecture, restored the Forbidden City's Belvedere of Literary Profundity in 1932. It was named a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1987.

Chinese architecture utilized open spaces within buildings or building complexes to create large courtyards and sky wells. A sky well is a smaller, enclosed courtyard surrounded by closely spaced buildings. Gardens became popular features in Chinese architecture around the time of the Song dynasty. Many wealthy individuals began incorporating plants and flowers into their homes as a way of harmonizing human-made elements with those of the natural world. The gardens became more elaborate during the Ming and Qing dynasties, adding walkways, bridges, and pavilions. Among the most famous are the Gardens of Suzhou, which at one time numbered more than two hundred; about seventy have survived into the modern era. Four of the gardens were named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000.

Other common elements in Chinese architecture included the pavilion, known in China as a ting or kiosk. Pavilions were usually constructed of wood, bamboo, or stone. They were supported solely by columns with no walls and utilized a variety of shapes, such as squares, hexagons, triangles, and five-petal flowers. They acted as scenic additions to gardens and parks or as rest stops for travelers. The Kuoruting, or "Pavilion of Expanse," is China's largest at 24.6 feet (7.5 meters) tall. Located at the Summer Palace in Beijing, the pavilion is octagonal in shape and features three rings of forty columns.

While many early Chinese buildings were one-storied, architects began developing chonglou, or "layered houses," in the years before the Qin dynasty. The timber framework of the structures was held together by dougong brackets. Ancient cities often constructed multitiered towers that offered a strategic vantage point to the surrounding terrain. These towers typically housed a bell or drum used to note the time of day. Defensive towers used to house archers were built in Beijing during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Multistoried towers known as pagodas originated in India and were introduced to China along with Buddhism during the Han dynasty. Among the most notable is the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in the central city of Xi'an. The 210-foot (64-meter) pagoda was constructed during the Tang dynasty as a school for Buddhist monks.

The Chinese architectural style that developed in the early dynasties was maintained over the centuries with relatively few monumental changes. In the mid-twentieth century, China's government began instituting policies to reflect Communist ideology in its architecture. As the nation began to participate in the global economy in the late twentieth century, China began a modernization program that allowed different Western influences to merge with traditional architectural styles.

As the nation prepared to host the 2008 Olympic Games, China's government sought out the skills of prominent foreign architects to usher in a more modern style. Among the most noteworthy examples is the Central China Television (CCTV) Headquarters, designed primarily by Dutch architects Rem Koolhaas and Ole Scheere. The architects used a diagrid structural system to create a unique skyscraper shaped in a three-dimensional square loop. Several Chinese and Swiss architects collaborated to construct the façade of Beijing National Stadium, often called the Bird's Nest Stadium. Its high forest of interlocking steel girders gives the stadium a unique appearance similar to a bird’s nest. The National Aquatics Center, also known as the Water Cube, is a square bubble-like cube about 580 feet (177 meters) long and wide and 98 feet (30 meters) high, resembling a honeycomb. After hosting the water events in the 2008 Olympics, the facility was opened to the public and hosted light shows, exhibitions, and other activities. Like many buildings constructed for the 2008 Olympics, the Water Cube was also used in the 2022 Winter Olympics.

Modern Chinese architects continue to shape the international architectural scene. Chinese architect Wang Shu is known for breaking boundaries in contemporary architecture, utilizing old-world, traditional Chinese craftsmanship with modern idioms. He approaches projects with consideration of the environment and opposes “soulless architecture” trends. In 2012, Shu became the first Chinese citizen to receive the globally coveted Pritzker Prize. His most notable works include the Library of Wenzheng College (2000), Five Scattered Houses (2006), and the Glatzegg bus stop he created with his wife, Lu Wenyu, in 2014 as part of an international exchange in a tiny Austrian village. Another Pritzker Prize recipient, Chinese American architect Ieoh Ming Pei, is best known for constructing the glass pyramid in Paris, France’s Louvre, in 1989. Among his other works featured worldwide are the Bank of China Tower in Hong Kong, the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha, Qatar, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC.

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