Ioannis Metaxas
Ioannis Metaxas was a prominent Greek military officer and political leader, born on the island of Ithaca in 1871. After graduating from military schools in Greece and Germany, he served in various military campaigns, gaining a reputation that led to his involvement with the Greek royal family. Following a tumultuous political climate, Metaxas rose to power in 1936, establishing a dictatorial regime under the pretext of restoring order during a period of political instability. His government was characterized by strict censorship, the suppression of the Communist Party, and the promotion of Greek nationalism, alongside social reforms aimed at improving labor conditions and agricultural production.
While Metaxas maintained a strong connection with the monarchy and military, he faced skepticism from civilian leaders and the public. Despite his authoritarian rule, which included banning certain educational materials and enforcing loyalty oaths among youth, he implemented policies that improved real wages and public health. As World War II erupted, Greece initially declared neutrality but was soon invaded by Italy. Metaxas died in early 1941, shortly before Greece faced further occupation by Germany and Bulgaria. Metaxas is notably different from other European dictators of his time, as he did not advocate for expansionist or racist ideologies. His legacy remains a topic of discussion in the context of Greece's political history.
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Subject Terms
Ioannis Metaxas
Greek dictator (1936-1941)
- Born: April 12, 1871
- Birthplace: Ithaca, Greece
- Died: January 29, 1941
- Place of death: Athens, Greece
Cause of notoriety: As dictator, Metaxas introduced strict censorship and attempted to strengthen Greek nationalism, pressuring people to swear an oath of loyalty to the government.
Active: 1936-1941
Locale: Greece
Early Life
Ioannis Metaxas (yo-AHN-ihs meh-TAHKS-ihs) was born and raised on the island of Ithaca in western Greece. He graduated from the Evelpidon military college in 1890 and then attended the military engineering school and the Berlin War academy. He served as a junior officer under Crown Prince Constantine, the chief of staff, in the 1897 war against Turkey, which began his relationship with the royal family leading to his conservative politics. In the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) Metaxas attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.
Political Career
After the pro-German Constantine, who had become king, abdicated, Metaxas was arrested with other pro-German officers and sent into exile. He returned to Greece in 1920 as a major general but resigned his commission because of his opposition to the Asia Minor campaign. Metaxas formed his own Free Opinion Party (Eleftherofronon Komma) and served in coalition governments from time to time, but his party was never strong.
During the chaos of the early 1930’s, which included heightened battles between liberals and monarchists, Metaxas stood above both groups and argued for a stronger central government. In 1933, after eleven years as a republic, the monarchy resumed under Constantine’s son George II.
Liberals and conservatives could not agree on a workable coalition, and the king pushed forward Metaxas, whom the parties reluctantly accepted. The prospect of a general strike led by the Communists caused the king to issue a decree handing the power to Metaxas. Numerous left-wing politicians were arrested, and the general began his dictatorial regime on August 4, 1936. What was supposed to be a temporary measure now became the permanent government. Metaxas assumed the posts of minister of foreign affairs, armed forces, and education and acted as deputy for the ministries of security, press, labor, and the economy.
In addition to the support of the king, Metaxas had the backing of the officers’ corps, which had divided along party lines previously. Metaxas enjoyed no support from the civilian political leaders or the public, although they passively accepted his rule. He chose his ministers and assistants from among those whom he could trust. He strengthened the police force and destroyed the Communist Party. He introduced strict censorship and moderated schools’ and universities’ curricula. Metaxas banned books, including works of modern philosophy and even works of classical Greece, such as the famous funeral oration of Pericles defending democracy. He established the national youth movement, pressuring all young people to join and to swear an oath of loyalty to the state and government. His attempts to strengthen Greek nationalism included designating a standard language and supporting affiliation with the Orthodox Church, combating the tendency for regionalism.
Seeking the support of the working classes, Metaxas outlawed strikes but not unions and called for minimum-wage laws, contracts, and an eight-hour workday. Real wages actually rose under his regime. Cheap loans aided peasants, and debt reduction aided farmers. Metaxas promoted industry and also agricultural production. He improved health care and adopted a plan for public works.
Metaxas feared Italy and Bulgaria, two countries that Greece had confronted since World War I. He sought alliance with England, which responded only halfheartedly. When World War II started, Greece declared its neutrality, but Italy invaded the country in October, 1940. England was now quick to support Greece, and the Greeks drove the Italians back. Metaxas died in January, 1941, before the campaign was over. Bulgaria and Germany invaded Greece in April, and the country was occupied.
Impact
Ioannis Metaxas was not really a typical Fascist dictator like Benito Mussolini or Adolf Hitler in that he promoted no racist or expansionist policies. He was one of three dictators who punctuated Greek government, alternating with republics and monarchies, in the twentieth century.
Bibliography
Joachim, Joachim G. Ioannis Metaxas: The Formative Years, 1871-1922. Mannheim, Germany: Bibliopolis, 2000. A standard scholarly work on Metaxas’s early life and career.
Popascoma, Victor. “Metaxas.” In Balkan Dictators, edited by Bernd Fischer. London: C. Hurst, 2006. An excellent scholarly biography of Metaxas.
Vatakiotis, P. J. Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas. London: Frank Cass, 1998. A scholarly treatment of the years of Metaxas’s dictatorship.