Ancient criminal cases and mysteries

Significance: Many ancient humans engaged in illegal behaviors, ranging from theft to murder, that share elements with crimes that have been encountered by centuries of law-enforcement personnel, who in turn developed effective forensic investigation techniques. Intrigued by certain unsolved ancient crimes, some modern investigators have applied the latest forensic methods and tools to the evaluation of the available evidence in those cases, and their work has sometimes led to improvements in modern forensic analysis.

In ancient times, legal systems and procedures were not standardized; they functioned distinctly in diverse locales and during various periods. Biblical accounts, particularly in the Old Testament, depict many crimes, beginning with Cain’s killing of Abel. Ancient historians, including Herodotus (c. 484-425 b.c.e.) and Tacitus (c. 56-120 c.e.), recorded incidents of crime based on anecdotes they heard from contemporaries. The historical veracity of many of these accounts is questionable, however. Information regarding ancient crimes is often inconsistent, vague, and greatly distanced from eyewitnesses. Biased chroniclers often excluded information that countered their own beliefs or those of their patrons or incorporated incorrect details. In addition, wars and other disasters led to the loss of records that described crimes.

Ancient Laws

The crimes committed in the ancient world were similar to the malicious actions humans have pursued in all eras. Ancient people robbed, raped, abducted, and murdered much as modern people do, prompted by greed, revenge, and other motives. Rulers shaped most early laws to define crimes and establish punishments. The first known law code was issued by Hammurabi during his reign as king of Babylon, from approximately 1792 to 1750 b.c.e. The behaviors defined as crimes in ancient times were those that violated the moral and social beliefs valued by the leaders who made the laws; these behaviors were often directed against royalty, governments, or temples, and they had negative impacts on communities. People were often considered criminal for disobeying rules and customs, especially those related to religious practices, as ancient theology and politics were often linked. Many ancient people perceived blasphemy to be a criminal activity.

Laws in particular areas changed as the ruling powers changed with invasions and wars, and the laws that were enforced varied depending on rulers’ agendas, attitudes, and tolerance for criminality. Ancient philosophers, including Aristotle (384-322 b.c.e.) and Plato (c. 427-347 b.c.e.), contemplated the role of crime and punishment in societies and the need for justice. The punishments for criminal behavior in ancient times included seizure of property, imprisonment, forced labor, mutilation, exile, and execution. Individuals usually dealt with personal crimes, such as embezzlement and extortion, by seeking compensation.

Just as the laws varied, the courts of the ancient world operated differently in different places and times. Most of the courts of ancient Rome were conducted by praetors, or magistrates, who chose the cases that would be heard. Juries came to decisions of acquittal, condemnation, or “not proven” after hearing cases in which alleged criminals were pitted against their accusers; in these courts, oratorical evidence was offered and witnesses testified. In ancient Greek courts, citizen juries, often consisting of several hundred men, ruled on the cases presented; both prosecutors and defenders in these cases used oratory rather than evidence to sway jurors’ decisions.

Murder

Ancient people committed homicide for many of the same reasons modern people do. Some murders were intentional, committed out of jealousy, rage, or vengeance; others were the unintentional result of other crimes, such as theft or assault. Assassinations of rulers occurred frequently throughout ancient history. Although most of the homicides that took place in ancient times remain anonymous, at least one is widely known in the modern world: the assassination of the Roman ruler Julius Caesar (100-44 b.c.e.), whose political actions provoked his rivals to conspire to kill him.

After he attained power in 49 b.c.e., Caesar instituted reforms that outraged his enemies, who feared losing the power and prestige that had been accorded their families for generations. On March 15, 44 b.c.e., Caesar went to the Theatre of Pompey, where the Roman senate was meeting. A group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus swarmed around Caesar and slashed him with knives. A physician who later examined Caesar’s corpse noted that he had twenty-three stab wounds. Roman officials ordered that Caesar’s assassins be apprehended and slain.

Other notorious ancient assassinations targeted Roman and Egyptian leaders. On September 18, 96 c.e., Roman emperor Domitian was assassinated. Tired of Domitian’s oppression, his chamberlain had devised a plot against him, involving Domitian’s guards as accomplices. A steward named Stephanus fatally stabbed Domitian, whose supporters avenged his death by killing the assassins. In ancient Egypt, women living in the pharaoh’s harem plotted to remove Ramses III from power in 1153 b.c.e. A judicial papyrus dating from that time indicates that numerous people were arrested for actions related to the crime, of whom twenty-four were declared guilty and probably executed.

Poisoning

During ancient times, scientific techniques to detect poisons in bodies were nonexistent. This inability to trace toxins to fatalities benefited many people who relied on poisoning as the most effective method of eliminating enemies and rivals. Ancient poisoners derived toxins from organic sources, both plants and animal venoms, to contaminate food and drink or create deadly lotions. Arsenic, which was used to season foods and was incorporated in pharmaceuticals, proved lethal when concentrated in bodily tissues.

Among the notorious poisoners in ancient Rome (around 74 b.c.e.) was a man named Oppianicus, whose criminal acts included poisoning but failing to kill Cluentius, whose stepfather Oppianicus had killed so he could marry Cluentius’s mother, Sassia. Oppianicus schemed to acquire Cluentius’s belongings, which his mother would inherit after his death. At Oppianicus’s trial for attempting to kill Cluentius, his defense tried to discredit Cluentius by claiming that Cluentius had bribed judges. The tactic did not work, and Oppianicus was exiled. Sassia and Cluentius’s sister later sought prosecution of Cluentius for allegedly attempting to poison Oppianicus, and Cluentius was acquitted. When Oppianicus was subsequently murdered, Cluentius, who was accused of the crime, benefited from the defense oratory of Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero. Cicero’s strategy was not to stress Cluentius’s innocence but to focus on the crimes Oppianicus had committed to suggest that his death was justified. Cicero’s persuasive statements resulted in Cluentius’s exoneration.

Another ancient Roman poisoner, Locusta, was so well known for her herbal expertise that prominent Romans sought her out for her poisoning services. Her influential clients included the wife of Emperor Claudius (10 b.c.e.-54 c.e.), Agrippina the Younger, who schemed for her son from an earlier marriage, Nero, to succeed Claudius as emperor rather than Britannicus, Claudius’s son by a previous wife. Deciding to kill Claudius first, Agrippina contacted Locusta, who served Claudius a meal containing poisonous mushrooms. The physician who attended Claudius when he became ill was allied with Agrippina; he gave the emperor a poisonous enema, ensuring his death. Although Locusta was incarcerated for that murder, Nero, the new emperor, released her so that she could kill Britannicus with tainted wine.

Theft and Civic Crimes

Theft was a common crime in ancient communities. Thieves picked pockets, stole goods from markets and homes, and embezzled. Papyrus records from ancient Egypt describe such notable heists as the Great Tomb Robbery. Royal tombs at Thebes were particularly vulnerable to robbery. Some corrupt officials aided thieves or stole from religious and royal sites. Records describe the plundering of the Karnak temple complex by a guard.

An example of the view of some ideas as criminal according to ancient law is found in the trial of the philosopher Socrates (470-399 b.c.e.) in Athens. Many ancient communities deemed behavior that ignored or denounced tradition as criminal. Trials contemplated whether people should be punished for such sacrilegious acts as vandalizing statues related to gods. In 399 b.c.e., three prominent citizens of Athens—a poet, an artisan, and a politician—initiated prosecution against Socrates, asserting that his crime was suggesting that people reject the city’s gods. Also, Socrates had prompted Athenians, particularly young men, to examine their leaders’ rules and conduct critically.

Because of his views, Socrates had alienated many Athenians who considered his behavior criminal and sought his conviction. Some people despised Socrates for criticizing their professions and demeaning them personally. A group of 280 jurors, out of a jury of approximately 500 men, declared Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death. They stressed that Socrates had endangered Athenians with his erratic religious views and his arguments that citizens should scrutinize their leaders. Socrates carried out his own execution by consuming hemlock.

Death of Tutankhamen

The mysterious death of Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen has intrigued people since Howard Carter and his archaeological team located the tomb of the “boy king” in 1922. The objects in the tomb, including the pharaoh’s mummy, provoked speculation regarding why and how Tutankhamen died in 1323 b.c.e. at the age of eighteen. The tomb’s small size and arrangement were inconsistent with the stature accorded to other royal figures, suggesting that Tutankhamen’s death was unexpected and required expeditious arrangements. In addition to suggesting that Tutankhamen may have succumbed to illness, archaeologists and historians have speculated that he may have been the victim of assassination by a rival.

For several decades, scientists lacked sufficiently effective forensic methods and tools to evaluate hypotheses regarding Tutankhamen’s premature demise. In 1968, Ronald Harrison, head of the Anatomy Department at the University of Liverpool, X-rayed Tutankhamen’s mummy. He noted damage to the skull that suggested the pharaoh may have sustained a violent blow to the head. Harrison also observed that some of Tutankhamen’s ribs and his breastbone were absent. murder theorists identified four people who might have slain Tutankhamen to seize power: his adviser Ay, who became the next pharaoh; army commander Horemheb, who succeeded Ay and purged monuments of Tutankhamen references; his treasurer, Maya; or his wife, Ankhesenamun.

Investigation and speculation regarding Tutankhamen’s death continued, and in January, 2005, Zahi Hawass, Egypt’s chief archaeologist, oversaw a full digital evaluation of Tutankhamen’s mummy through the use of a computed tomography (CT) scan. The approximately seventeen hundred images generated in the scan indicated that the pharaoh had been healthy and probably had not suffered fatal trauma, intensifying the mystery regarding his death. The scan revealed a fractured left femur (thighbone), causing scientists to ponder whether the bone had been broken before or after the pharaoh died. Many forensic experts interpreted the evidence provided by the CT scan as proof that Tutankhamen was probably not murdered, but many scientists have continued to seek definitive information that can point to the exact cause of his death.

Unresolved Cases

Several ancient murders have intrigued modern forensic investigators, some of whom have applied their techniques, tools, and knowledge to efforts to understand what happened. Discoveries of the preserved corpses of ancient persons, such as Kennewick man, discovered in the Pacific Northwest in 1996, and related artifacts have allowed scientists to gain insights into ancient lifestyles and communities. Although forensic methods have helped scientists to develop plausible interpretations regarding specific ancient bodies, in cases where they have suspected murder they have been unable to learn conclusively why particular individuals died or who might have killed them. Those crimes remain mysteries, although each advancement in forensic science offers continuing hope for resolution.

In September, 1991, mountain climbers found a frozen male corpse on a glacier in the Ötztal Alps near the border between Austria and Italy. When the clothing on the body and items adjacent to it were examined, the authorities realized the remains were ancient. The corpse, which later became known as Ötzi the Iceman, and the objects found with it were shipped to Innsbruck, Austria, where they were evaluated at the Forensic Medical Institute by Konrad Spindler, an archaeologist. Radiocarbon dating indicated that the remains were approximately 5,300 years old.

Scientists employed numerous methods, including CT scans, in attempting to solve the mystery of Ötzi’s demise and whether it was criminal or accidental. In 1998, Ötzi was transported to Bolzano, Italy, where forensic pathologist Peter Vanezis studied the skull and performed a facial reconstruction. During June, 2001, Paul Gostner, a radiologist at Bolzano General Hospital, X-rayed the body and found that an arrowhead was lodged in Ötzi’s shoulder. Stating that Ötzi had been murdered, forensic experts suggested various ways in which the death might have taken place. Some speculated that Ötzi may have been killed during warfare, that he may have been the victim of rival hunters, or that he may have been a human sacrifice.

Similarly preserved ancient bodies found in northern Europe have also stimulated forensic analysis. Bodies immersed in peat bogs for centuries have retained evidence useful for forensic examination. Investigators have hypothesized that the so-called bog bodies were those of ancient murder victims, people whose lives were sacrificed to gods, or executed criminals. Radiometric dating has shown that some of those found in the bogs lived during the British Iron Age (seventh century b.c.e. to fifth century b.c.e.). Forensic scientists have evaluated their garments, wounds, and physical characteristics using techniques similar to those employed in the assessment of Ötzi. The evidence they have found, including fingerprints and preserved injuries, indicates that many of these ancient people met violent deaths—strangled with ropes, drowned, stabbed, or decapitated.

Profiting from Ancient Crimes

The appeal of enigmatic ancient crimes, particularly mysteries associated with royalty, has abetted criminal activity in later centuries. Obscure information regarding historic individuals has often enabled criminals to carry out fraudulent schemes involving the deception of antiquities collectors.

In October, 2000, for example, information accompanying a mummy that was seized from the dwelling of a Karachi, Pakistan, chieftain stated that the remains were those of Rhodugune, young daughter of Persian king Xerxes I, who had lived in the fifth century b.c.e. Investigators noted the sloppy mummification procedures evidenced by the body and the odd usage of the Greek version of the princess’s Persian name, Wardegauna. Scientists conducted X-ray and CT scans of the mummy at Pakistan’s National Museum, and the results, along with further forensic examination, revealed that the mummy, although unusually short, was that of an adult woman in her twenties, not a child, and radiocarbon dating revealed she had died in 1996. Given that the woman’s spine was fractured, authorities feared she had been murdered by people engaged in the marketing of counterfeit ancient mummies.

Bibliography

Emsley, John. The Elements of Murder: A History of Poison. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Presents details about how killers have used poisons throughout history. Features chapters on arsenic, lead, and other toxins.

Hawass, Zahi. Tutankhamun: The Mystery of the Boy King. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2005. Egyptian archaeologist describes his experiences with forensic investigations regarding Tutankhamen’s death. Features CT images.

Redford, Susan. The Harem Conspiracy: The Murder of Ramesses III. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2002. Archaeologist describes the women who plotted to kill the Egyptian king and their motivations based on temple and papyri resources.

Wilson, Emily. The Death of Socrates. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007. Examines how Socrates’ ideas were considered criminal in ancient Athens and how the philosopher’s trial and execution influenced thought and culture.

Woolf, Greg. Et Tu, Brute? The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007. Presents comprehensive discussion of Caesar’s death and the role of assassins in ancient history. Includes photographs of artifacts and artworks that portray the crime and its participants.