Indigenous peoples of Manitoba

The Indigenous peoples of Manitoba were the first people to live in the Canadian province of Manitoba. Indigenous peoples have lived in Manitoba and the rest of Canada for more than ten thousand years, during which time they have experienced vast changes to their lands and cultures. With the coming of Europeans to Canada, the Indigenous people lost much of their influence and faced serious problems and suffering. By the twenty-first century, Indigenous groups have had mixed results in preserving their heritages and finding hope and prosperity in the modern world. Manitoba is home to about 18 percent of all Indigenous Canadians. Manitoba's Indigenous residents represent many different groups, most broadly categorized as First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. The First Nations group is further subdivided into Cree, Dakota, Dene, Ojibway, and Oji-Cree groups. Each group maintains communities in Manitoba and follows a unique way of life.

Background

Humans arrived in what is now Canada more than ten thousand years ago. These first people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who most likely followed large game animals across a natural bridge that temporarily linked Asia and North America. Once in North America, these people slowly spread to many regions. In modern times, these ancient peoples are referred to collectively as the Indigenous people of Canada. They fall into three broad categories known as First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, each of which is further divided into smaller groups.

Starting around 1500, large groups of outsiders began arriving in Canada. These newcomers came from many lands, but particularly from Britain and France, and attempted to build colonies and governments. In many cases, the Europeans coexisted peacefully among the native people. In many other cases, European interference in Canada resulted in conflict, displacement of Indigenous people, and other tragedies. Indigenous people and Europeans often attempted to negotiate agreements about their mutual rights and responsibilities. Such agreements, signed by both parties, were adopted as treaties. Although many treaties were broken or forgotten, others continue to direct the groups' interactions into the twenty-first century.

One of the first and most influential documents guiding the early relationship between Europeans and Indigenous people was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. This document, issued by the government of Great Britain, demonstrated some respect for native land rights but also the belief that Britain had ultimate control over Canada. In the following centuries, many other acts and treaties expanded upon and updated the understandings between Indigenous people and Europeans.

In the province of Manitoba, most groups of native people are affected by five so-called Numbered Treaties that were enacted in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These treaties were intended to build cooperation between the factions, mainly to facilitate Canadian governmental goals, such as gaining territories, establishing new towns, and creating railroads. Over the course of these agreements, Indigenous groups lost much of their traditional land and autonomy to the European-Canadian leaders. In return, affected Indigenous people received reserve land, money, and needed supplies for hunting and farming.

Despite a certain varying level of respect and protection afforded to Indigenous people, the European-Canadian government maintained an attitude of superiority. Early legislation, most notably the Indian Act of 1876, pushed for native people to be assimilated, or stripped of traditional ways and made to follow beliefs and customs derived from European life. Part of this assimilation involved a breakdown of traditional native social organizations and reduction of their powers and influence. It also prompted the opening of residential schools intended to detach Indigenous children from their families and cultures, often through coercive and degrading tactics.

In the 1960s and 1970s, early acts and assimilation policies were re-evaluated and leaders on both sides began trying to find ways to reduce their discriminatory and repressive nature while still affording legal recognition of native groups. The heavily and continually revised document is called The First Nations Governance Act. Residential schools have been closed and governments and religious groups have made some attempts to help and counsel students and families scarred by their experiences.

In modern times, Indigenous people of Canada compose much of the nation's population. These people are spread across many territories and represent many groups, tribes, nations, or alliances. More than fifty Indigenous languages are still in use in Canada. Their speakers also observe a wide range of customs and beliefs, ranging from the traditional to the modern. Some have retained their ancestral spiritual practices while others have adopted Christianity or other religions, or mixed beliefs and practices from multiple sources. Some Indigenous people live on reservations, but more than half live in cities.

Overview

The Canadian province of Manitoba, located near the center of the country, is well known for its large population of Indigenous people. Based on a 2021 survey, Manitoba was home to about 237,190 Indigenous people in Canada, which made up about 18 percent of the province's population. The Manitoban cities with the largest Indigenous populations include Winnipeg, Thompson, Brandon, and Portage la Prairie. Winnipeg has the largest population of Indigenous people of any Canadian municipality.

Like Indigenous people in other parts of North America, the people of Manitoba have adopted a variety of different customs, beliefs, and lifestyles, but still retain proud association with their traditional groups. These groups represent the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. In 2021, about 134,890 were First Nations, 96,730 were Métis, and 725 were Inuit.

The predominant Indigenous group in Manitoba, the First Nations people, are divided into several smaller nations. These include the Cree, Dakota, Dene, Ojibway, and Oji-Cree. These groups are concentrated in different parts of the province, and each follows a unique way of life.

In ancient times, the Cree traveled as nomads from Quebec to Alberta in search of food. They lived in bands that included family groups and hunting parties that shared their daily tasks. These bands migrated, hunted, and fished together. They also participated in a wide variety of social gatherings, including dances, ceremonies, and singing and storytelling meets. The traditional spirituality of the Cree is based on respect for nature and all living things, as well as lands and waters.

The ancient Cree called themselves the Inninewak; the name Cree was derived from a French term much later. The Cree remain a widespread and powerful group. Today, the Cree language is the most common Indigenous language in Canada. The name of Manitoba's capital, Winnipeg, comes from this language.

The modern Cree people mainly live in the northern and central parts of the province, north and west of Lake Winnipeg. Different subgroups within the Cree of Manitoba include the Woods Cree, Plains Cree, Swampy Cree, and Rocky Cree, each of which traditionally lived in a different region. These subgroups are further divided into approximately twenty-three smaller communities. These groups speak dialects of the same language and follow generally similar practices.

Like most other Indigenous Canadians, in ancient times the Dakota people were nomads who traveled in search of food. Later they discovered agriculture and became more sedentary, living in villages near their farms. With the arrival of horses in the region, however, many of the Dakota returned to their migratory roots as they tracked herds of deer, elk, and buffalo over great distances. In modern times, most became farmers or found jobs in nearby towns.

The Dakota language, once common in Manitoba and other parts of Canada and a staple of children's education, is becoming rare. Fewer children learn the language and fluent speakers, mostly older people, are quickly passing away. The term Dakota is thought to mean "friend," and it is the preferred name of this group that is sometimes referred to as Sioux. In line with their name, the Dakota are known for their generous nature, particularly to people in need.

Modern Dakota communities are clustered in the southern parts of the province. Five main communities live in Manitoba, and Dakota people also live in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Most of these communities are fully modernized and have few visible traces of traditional lifeways.

The Dene comprise one of the largest Indigenous groups in Canada, with their numbers extending across several provinces including Manitoba. Within Manitoba, they are concentrated in two communities: Dahlu T'ua and Tes-He-Olie Twe. Both are in the northern parts of the province.

Traditionally, the Dene were known for their strong sense of family and community, as demonstrated in their public events and ceremonies, many of which include drums and other music. Power was often shared among all people rather than concentrated on individuals. Dene people were also noted for focusing on education. Children were taught not only vital skills but also civic virtues such as respect for elders and love for nature and living things.

Despite the large number of Dene in Canada, their language is in severe decline, with only a few thousand speakers still using it in the twenty-first century. In addition, the population of Dene in Manitoba is relatively small and marked by suffering. In the 1950s, many Dene were forced to relocate due to government restrictions on their practice of hunting caribou. This relocation, later determined to have been unnecessary, was disastrous to the community.

The Ojibway traditionally lived over a great stretch of land reaching from northern Canada to the Great Lakes. In modern times, these people live in several provinces, including Manitoba. In Manitoba, the Ojibway are concentrated in southern regions around and south of Lake Winnipeg. Some live near Dakota communities in the region.

Traditionally, the Ojibway were hunters and gatherers. One group, the Plains Ojibway, used horses to hunt bison, while the Woodland Ojibway hunted on foot and fished and traveled long distances in canoes. The Ojibway developed a complex social structure of clans and bands, and designated duties and responsibilities among most members of their communities. Their people helped to establish the pow-wow ceremony, a large gathering of families and groups to meet, tell stories, celebrate, dance, and sing. Although much Ojibway cultural heritage has been lost to time, change, and assimilation, many Ojibway people still hold on to their ancestral legacy.

The Oji-Cree are people whose culture observes aspects of both Ojibway and Cree cultures. Four major groups of Oji-Cree people live in Manitoba, all clustered around the province's eastern region. These groups each follow a unique blend of the Ojibway and Cree ways of life.

Whereas the Cree, Dakota, Dene, Ojibway, and Oji-Cree are members of the First Nations, Manitoba is also home to a separate nation, the Métis. The Métis is a nation of people of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. This group began forming in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as many European immigrants to Canada began intermarrying with local native families. Most of the Métis in Manitoba live near the Red River. They have a long tradition of struggling to protect their rights from government interference, but even in the twenty-first century many of their goals are unresolved.

The Métis people speak a unique language that mixes French and several nearby Indigenous dialects. Appropriately, the name Métis derives from a French word for "mixture." Many Métis also spoke fluent Indigenous languages, French, or even English, and their religions were Indigenous, Christian, or combinations thereof. Their lifestyles also reflected their dual ancestry. Some lived in traditional native shelters, or adopted European-style cabins. Some hunted and gathered and others traded furs in the European manner.

The Indigenous people of Manitoba have weathered many struggles in the past centuries and have made significant progress against oppression, assimilation, poverty, and many other social problems. Their populations are growing steadily. From 2016 to 2021, Manitoban First Nations populations rose by 9.6 percent. During that same time, the Métis population rose by 8.3 percent.

Many problems still lie ahead, however. Indigenous people continue to push for protections against interferences, such as encroachments upon reserve lands for resource extraction and the removal of Indigenous children for foster care by European-Canadian families. Indigenous groups also seek the proper recognition and respect for their cultures and their ability to make independent decisions. Lack of educational and job opportunities in Indigenous and reserve areas, plus troubles such as disease and crime, further hamper these peoples' progress.

Indigenous and European-Canadian leaders continue to work toward greater cooperation and prosperity. New government focus on Truth and Reconciliation—the process of recognizing and attempting to heal injustices committed upon Indigenous people—has made some headway. A push for better education, understanding, and activism promises to continue the work of improving the lives of the Indigenous people of Manitoba and all of Canada.

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