Ukrainian literature

Ukrainian literature refers to creative writings produced by the Ukrainian people and their ancestors. Written Ukrainian dates back more than a millennium. Since that time, Ukrainian authors have created numerous poems, plays, stories, novels, and other works. Much of this work mirrors the ongoing hopes and struggles of the Ukrainian people as they yearn for independence. The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 brought a major resurgence of interest in Ukrainian literature.

Brief Background

The language of the Ukrainian people is part of the East Slavic branch of the Indo-European linguistic tree. The roots of the spoken language may be traced back many hundreds of years to about the sixth century when Slavic speakers began using a new dialect known to modern linguists as Proto-Ukrainian. The development of this language is complex. It developed over time through cultural changes and interactions with other groups. In the twenty-first century, the form of the language is widely known as Standard Ukrainian, which is based on a mixture of the local dialects.

The written language developed in a different way than the spoken language. While the spoken language spread widely and adapted freely to changing times, the written language remained relatively static. This written form of Ukrainian was introduced by early Christian church leaders for the purpose of recording prayers and other religious rituals. Over the centuries, the written language held to its religious roots, while the spoken language changed significantly. The result was that, by the nineteenth century, many people who could speak Ukrainian could not read or write it due to the significant differences.

Linguists recognized this as a serious problem and created a new form of written language to more closely mirror the actual forms of speech among the people. However, this change, coming at a time of great political and social change, broke the progression of Ukrainian literature and ultimately required many years of adaptation before works appeared in the new form.

Overview

The arrival of Christianity in Kyivan Rus’ (an early incarnation of Ukraine) about 988 brought a system of writing that led to the creation of the first Ukrainian literature. At first, much of this literature focused on religion and included translations of biblical texts, prayers, and other sacred documents. It also included biographies of saints meant to provide models of piety and proper behavior. The rest of the early literature mainly focused on recording the oral tradition of the people, including centuries of colorful folktales and lore.

In the twelfth century, literature expanded into new areas, creating distinct narratives instead of merely translating or documenting old information. A few examples include the travel narratives of Hegumen Danylo and an epic poem called “The Tale of Ihor’s Campaign” by an anonymous poet. The latter work uses numerous literary devices, suggesting a command of the young language, and allusions to traditional folktales. It also employs political overtones that show the concern over the struggling state of Kyivan Rus’.

Kyivan Rus’ eventually collapsed, and its lands and peoples were dominated by outsiders for centuries. However, a new hint of hope for the Ukrainian culture emerged in the sixteenth century. This was reflected in a new period of literature known to historians as the Cossack Period. During this time, Ukrainian land was part of early incarnations of Poland and Lithuania, countries that maintained connections with Western Europe and brought important influences such as the vivid art and learning of the Renaissance.

Education for the Ukrainian people improved, with literature as a key aspect. This change was made possible by the introduction of the printing press to the region. The literary push rose quickly—too quickly, in fact, for the comfort of many Church authorities who feared secular writings and education would foster rebelliousness among the faithful. Despite this concern, much of the literature during this period dealt with saints, holy figures, and other topics of Christian dogma.

By the eighteenth century, Ukrainian writers flourished in many fields. Poems (often anonymous), dramatic works, and autobiographies of secular personalities reached high levels of artistry and proved popular with the educated classes. Some notable writings during this period took the form of playful and creative codes, shaped poems, and writings that could be read in either direction.

The Cossack Period was relatively short-lived, as the brief feeling of political, social, and intellectual leeway in Ukraine faded under growing domination by Russia. Russia gradually imposed on many areas of Ukrainian life. By the late eighteenth century, Russian had supplanted Ukrainian as the scholarly language, and even the language of the peasants was often called “Little Russian” instead of Ukrainian.

Although largely under Russian rule (with other regions largely under Polish influence), the writers of Ukraine found unique ways to continue their literature. They also celebrated their culture, which they saw as being unique and worthy of existence—a theme that would continue well into the twenty-first century. A generation of writers mixed scholarly themes and topics with common manners of expression accessible to regular people. One of the most famous of these writers was Ivan Kotliarevsky, who borrowed from ancient Roman plays but expressed his ideas with the Ukrainian tongue.

Other literature of this period explored the lives of everyday Ukrainians, including their many sorrows as well as their great capacity for joy and humor. Romantic writing delved into deep emotions and idolized glamorous visions of the past when brave Ukrainian warriors ruled their land. Taras Shevchenko was one of the most acclaimed poets of this age. Other writers took a bleaker view of life and demonstrated pessimism for the years ahead, and some accepted the international order as inevitable and wrote and published in Russian.

Despite official limits on the use of written Ukrainian, many writers continued to publish quietly or in other countries. Some of these continued the push to preserve Ukrainian words and traditions. Publications of poems, dramatic works, novels, folklore compendia, and even political booklets and scientific studies continued. Some of the major writers during this period included Ivan Franko and Mykhailo Drahomanov.

With the dawn of the twentieth century came a wave of modernism which swept much of the world, and greatly influenced Ukrainian writers. Many writers moved away from prior focus on realism and began relying more on symbolism, psychological questions, and emotions. Impressionism became influential in the works of storytellers such as Vasyl Stefanyk, whose short stories featured highly charged emotions meant to reflect the struggle of humans both within themselves and between each other. Female writers also began to take a greater share of publications; some of these included Lesia Ukrainka and Olha Kobylianska.

The twentieth century was a time of dramatic change, horrifying loss, and promises of a better future. The end of World War I in 1918 allowed a very brief period of independence for Ukraine during which waves of new writers appeared and began creating works at a prodigious rate. Literary societies, criticism, and studies of literary history cemented the strength and progress of Ukraine’s writers through the ages. Poems, dramatic works, and many other forms flourished. Many of these works celebrated the seemingly fulfilled dream of Ukrainian independence.

However, this brief period of hope ended suddenly and cruelly as the shadow of communism fell over Ukraine in the 1930s. Communist leaders declared control over most functions in Ukraine, and made clear that no dissention from the party platform would be allowed. Ukrainian writers faced the options of either pledging allegiance to the Communist Party, going silent, or risking imprisonment or death for writing works that contradicted Soviet teachings. Ukrainian literature declined greatly during the Soviet years and the horrors of World War II, during which another violently repressive regime, the Nazis, temporarily took control over much of Ukraine.

Still, the hidden hope for independence and freedom of expression lived on, if quietly, and often only thanks to Ukrainians who had left their homeland. Writers in many other countries, including the United States, carried on as best they could with the themes of strength and hope that had helped to unify the people against oppression.

Only following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 did any relief appear for Ukrainian writers who remained in their homeland. Some slackening in Soviet supervision allowed creativity to shine through. A few luminaries of the coming decades included Ivan Drach, Yevhen Hutsalo, Valerii Shevchuk, Ivan Dziuba, and Oleksa Kolomiiets. These and hundreds of other like-minded writers worked on despite numerous other political and social struggles, dangers, and restrictions, maintaining the hope for Ukrainian freedom which seemed to reappear following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Despite decades of relative freedom and opportunity, and another literary blooming, political fortunes for Ukraine once again darkened in the 2010s. Russian forces, commanded by Vladimir Putin, began pushing to restore a Ukraine united with, and ruled by, Russia. Violent clashes over territory in 2014 led to a major invasion and a war in February 2022. Tens of thousands of Ukrainians took to the streets to fight the incoming Russian soldiers, while writers of all genres resumed the ongoing process of using words to bolster the spirits and strength of Ukrainians for another long battle for independence.

Many literary analysts, along with political analysts, believe that the Russian intrusion is again forcing Ukrainians to move closer to one another and add to the already intense patriotism that has characterized the region for centuries. The events have also kindled a new international interest in Ukraine, and works by modern Ukrainian writers such as Andrey Kurkov and Sonya Bilocerkowyz have begun circulating more widely than ever before.

Bibliography

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Dugdale, John. “Short on Knowledge of Ukrainian Literature? Read On.” The Guardian, 28 Feb. 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/28/ukraine-literature-writers-fiction-guide. Accessed 22 Apr. 2022.

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Yermolenko, Volodymyr. “Masterpieces of Ukrainian Literature: 7 Works (or More) You Can Read in English.” Ukraine World, 27 Nov. 2018, ukraineworld.org/articles/ukraine-explained/masterpieces-ukrainian-literature. Accessed 22 Apr. 2022.